• Anthology Structure:
  • The book is not a continuous narrative but an anthology gathered over hundreds of years.
  • Shifts in tone, style, and structure indicate different historical and literary contexts.
• The Seven Key Superscripts (Headings):

• 1. 1:1 – The Proverbs of Solomon (The Prologue).
  2. 10:1 – The Proverbs of Solomon (The Sentence Literature).
  3. 22:17 – The Words of the Wise.
  4. 24:23 – These sayings are also from the Wise.
  5. 25:1 – Proverbs of Solomon copied by Hezekiah’s men.
  6. 30:1 – The Words of Agur.
  7. 31:1 – The Words of King Lemuel.

II. The First Two Solomonic Collections (Prov 1–22)

• Collection 1: The Theological Gateway (1:1–9:18):
  • Establishes authority through the Davidic monarchy.
  • Frames wisdom not as abstract philosophy, but as a covenantal relationship with Yahweh.
  • Focuses on extended poetic discourses and “Lady Wisdom.”
• Collection 2: The Core Aphorisms (10:1–22:16):
  • The most recognizable form: succinct, two-line parallel couplets (“gold coins” of wisdom).
  • Numerical Significance: Contains 375 proverbs, matching the numerical value (gematria) of Solomon’s name in Hebrew.
  • Focuses on sharp contrasts: the righteous vs. the wicked, the diligent vs. the lazy.

III. The Words of the Wise (Prov 22:17–24:34)

• Collection 3: The “Thirty Sayings” (22:17–24:22):
  • Known as a “buried” superscript because it is embedded within an exhortation.
  • Shifts from short couplets to longer, discursive instructions.
  • International Context: Shares notable parallels with the Egyptian Instruction of Amenemope, showing wisdom’s international character.
• Collection 4: The Appendix (24:23–34):
  • A secondary supplement drawn from anonymous sages.
  • Focuses on social justice (partiality in judgment) and a vivid cautionary poem on laziness (the neglected field).

IV. The “Hezekiah” Collection (Prov 25–29)

• Collection 5: Scribes and Preservation:
  • Provides a clear historical notice: these proverbs were “transcribed” 250 years after Solomon by King Hezekiah’s scribes.
  • Reflects an intentional scholarly movement to safeguard and reorganize royal archives.
• Thematic Distinctions:
  • Chapters 25–27: Focus on “courtly wisdom”—diplomacy, social conduct, and life near power.
  • Chapters 28–29: Adoption of a more moral/theological tone, possibly reflecting Hezekiah’s religious reforms.

V. The Final Voices (Prov 30–31)

• Collection 6: The Words of Agur (30:1–33):
  • Uses prophetic terminology (massa/oracle), elevating wisdom to the level of revealed truth.
  • The Tone of Humility: Agur begins with a confession of his own “stupidity” and human limitation.
  • Corrects overconfidence in human reasoning by pointing to the refined Word of God.
• Collection 7: The Words of Lemuel (31:1–9):
  • Unique attribution to a non-Israelite king and his mother’s instruction.
  • Focuses on the ethical responsibilities of leadership: sobriety and defending the poor.
• The Climactic Coda (31:10–31):
  • An anonymous acrostic poem on the “Excellent Wife/Woman of Strength.”
  • Forms a literary inclusio with Chapter 1 by returning to “the fear of Yahweh.”

VI. Analyzing Differences in Form and Tone

• Parental Prologue (1–9): Sustained, urgent, and personified (Lady Wisdom).
• Sentence Literature (10–22): Rapid, cumulative, and practical observations.
• Reflective Sages (22–24): More developed moral teaching and international dialogue.
• Prophetic Wisdom (30–31): Introspective, skeptical of self, and focused on embodied action.

VII. The Solomonic Legacy

• Selective Preservation:
  • 1 Kings 4 states Solomon spoke 3,000 proverbs, yet the Bible contains only about 500–600 of them.
  • This indicates the Book of Proverbs is a “curated” collection of the most enduring and valuable insights for the covenant community.
• Universal vs. Specific:
  • Solomon’s legacy established the “standard” for godly wisdom.
  • Other voices (the Wise, Agur, Lemuel) were added because they resonate with the fundamental conviction that wisdom begins with the fear of Yahweh.

1 What are “Proverbs”?

• The Hebrew Concept (mašal):
  • Fundamentally means “likeness,” “similitude,” or “representation.”
  • Encompasses everything from one-line pithy sayings to long poetic discourses.
• The Goal of Interpretation:
  • Recognizing that different forms function differently (declaring truth, persuading, or commanding).
  • Appealing to both the intellect and the imagination to shape character.

2 Aphorisms or Adages

• Structure and Form:
  • Short, pithy couplets (bicola) designed for memorability.
  • Relies on Hebrew Parallelism:
    • Antithetic: Contrasting ideas (e.g., hatred vs. love).
    • Synonymous: Reinforcing ideas through repetition or expansion.
• Function in Daily Life:
  • Declares general observations about God’s moral order.
  • Forces the reader to pause and internalize principles.
  • Acts as a portable teaching tool for sound decision-making.

3 Wisdom Statements

• Nature of the Form:
  • Observational declarations about reality and how life “tends” to function.
  • Descriptive rather than prescriptive (describes what is rather than what must be done).
• Educational Purpose:
  • Trains the reader to perceive cause-and-effect connections within the created order.
  • Cultivates maturity by requiring the reader to wrestle with trade-offs and social realities.
  • Crucial Distinction: These are realistic portrayals of life, not always moral endorsements.

4 Speech Poems

• Extended Teachings:
  • Longer discourses often framed as a teacher/father addressing a “son.”
  • Typical structure: A call to attention, a detailed lesson, and a concluding promise or warning.
• The Strategy of Persuasion:
  • Aims to engage the heart and mind through poetic imagery and emotional tone.
  • Explores the complexity of life by revisiting themes from multiple angles (desire, consequence, and outcome).
  • Connects individual behavior to broader theological realities like God’s sovereignty.

5 Riddles

• Enigmatic Wisdom:
  • Sayings that conceal meaning beneath vivid, sometimes puzzling imagery.
  • Requires active participation and mental acuity to decode the “emblematic comparison.”
• The “Parable” Effect:
  • Slowing down the reader to prevent superficial engagement.
  • Ensures deeper ownership of the truth because the reader must “discover” the conclusion.
  • Example: Using the image of a “thorn in a drunkard’s hand” to illustrate the danger of a fool using a proverb.

6 Wise Sayings (Sayings of the Wise)

• A “Collage” within the Collage:
  • Less rigid than aphorisms; often grouped in mini-stanzas.
• Specific Sub-Forms:
  • “Good/Not Good” Sayings: Explicitly name positive and negative patterns to build moral clarity.
  • “Better…Than” Sayings: Teach prioritization; choosing the “best” over the merely “acceptable.”
  • “Numerical” Sayings: Use the “three… four…” structure to highlight related observations and consistent patterns in nature and society.
  • “Abomination” and “Blessed” Sayings:
    • Abomination: Identifies behaviors detestable to Yahweh (theological accountability).
    • Blessed: Highlights the flourishing and joy that accompanies righteous living.
  • A Fortiori Sayings
• Argues from the “lesser to the greater.”
• If X is true in a small/obvious case, it is even more true in a larger/difficult case.
• Develops the habit of logical reflection and anticipating consequences.
• Uses everyday scenarios (running with footmen) to prepare the reader for greater trials (competing with horses).

7 Admonitions, Commands, and Prohibitions

• Prescriptive Guidance:
  • Unlike observational sayings, these address the will and demand an immediate response.
• The Motivational Clause:
  • Often pairs a command with a reason, appealing to both obedience and understanding.
• The Trio of Direction:
  • Admonitions: Urgent advice often paired with warnings.
  • Commands: Positive calls to action (e.g., “Trust in Yahweh”).
  • Prohibitions: Negative boundaries that protect from harm (e.g., “Do not envy”).

8 Conclusion: A Powerful Picture

• A Crafted Educational System:
  • The diversity of Proverbs is not random; it is necessary because human life is complex.
  • It engages the intellect (logic, comparison) and the imagination (imagery, story).
• Summary:
  • Prevents passive reading by forcing the reader to constantly adjust their perspective.
  • Equips the learner to navigate unpredictable situations with skill and reverence for God’s order.

One of those names is Yahweh-Nissi — “The Lord is my Banner” (Exodus 17:15). When Israel was attacked by Amalek, Moses stood on the hill with the staff of God. As long as his hands were raised, Israel prevailed. When they lowered, Amalek gained ground. Aaron and Hur helped hold his hands up, and Israel ultimately won the battle. In ancient warfare a banner was a rallying point that told soldiers where to gather and under whose authority they fought. Likewise, God’s people fight under His name and identity.

Another name is Yahweh-Shalom — “The Lord is Peace” (Judges 6:24). When the angel of the Lord appeared to Gideon, he was hiding in fear while threshing wheat in a winepress. Yet the angel said, “The LORD is with you, mighty warrior” (Judges 6:12). Though Israel was still oppressed, Gideon trusted God’s promise and called Him peace.

Ultimately these names point forward to Christ. Jesus said, “If I am lifted up… I will draw all men to myself” (John 12:32), and “He Himself is our peace” (Ephesians 2:14). Whether in battle or fear, Yahweh is both our banner and our peace.

Pastor Joshua uses the Bible version NET

Recap of Class Journey

• Covered interpreting Scripture: Primacy, perspicuity, textual criticism, translation bias, literary/historical contexts, application.

• Surveyed theologies: Biblical, systematic, analytic, historical, comparative.

• Ended with method to evaluate doctrines (objective rating on how well a doctrine is presented)

Addressing Criticisms of Restorationism

• Criticism 1 (Kevin DeYoung): Don’t interpret apart from creeds/traditions.

  • Response: Luther challenged traditions; Protestants shouldn’t act like Catholics. Traditions ok, but Bible critiques them.

• Criticism 2: “No creed but the Bible” is a creed.

  • Response: Everyone has creeds (beliefs); restorationists can use them but they should be editable

• Criticism 3: Overturn historic consensus.

  • Response: Not chaos; Bible is authority. Historic views ok if biblical; burden on unbiblical traditions.

• Criticism 4: Zipping back to 1st century ignores history.

  • Response: Not ignoring; learn from giants, but Bible first.

Benefits of Restorationism

• Clarity: Methodical approach resolves confusion; evaluates doctrines objectively.

• Unity: Denominations divide; restorationism unites via Bible.

• Evangelism: Intriguing label – “Restorationist” sparks questions.

Conclusion: Changing the World

• Restorationism combines inquiry/tech for authenticity.

• AI levels field; anyone can explore options.

• Time for disagreeing constructively: Debates, books, gatherings in love.

• Move toward truth/unity: Christianismi Restitutio.

Introduction

• Pull together components; rate doctrines 0-100.

• 4 categories: Biblical (8 pts), logical (6), historical (3), practical (3).

Twenty-question diagnostic tool to evaluate doctrine

1. Does the presenter show how the doctrine directly follows from relevant biblical prooftexts?
2. Does the presenter show evidence for the doctrine across multiple authors of scripture?
3. If including prooftext with manuscript uncertainties, does the presenter make a case for why his/her preferred reading is likely to be original?
4. If including prooftexts with translation ambiguities, does the presenter make a case for why his/her preferred translation is likely to be correct?
5. Does the presenter interpret each prooftext in its literary context, refusing to make the text mean something other than its authorial intent?
6. Does the presenter interpret each text in its historical context, refusing to make the text mean something it couldn’t have meant in its original setting?
7. Does the presenter account for the progressive revelation within scripture when assessing the applicability of texts to the doctrine under consideration?
8. Does the presenter offer explanations for the relevant difficult texts that seem to contradict the doctrine under consideration?
9. Does the presenter identify his/her assumptions as they relate to the doctrine under consideration?
10. Does the presenter define any terms or theological words that have multiple meanings?
11. Does the presenter express the doctrine simply and clearly?
12. Does the presenter show how the doctrine is logically valid?
13. Does the presenter refute any logical defeaters?
14. Does the presenter consider alternative positions on the doctrine and show why his/hers is preferrable?
15. Does the presenter identify individuals in church history who held the same doctrine?
16. If no explicit evidence of the doctrine is extant prior to Nicea, does the presenter offer an explanation why this doctrine wasn’t articulated in the first three centuries of Christianity?
17. If most Christians today do not hold the doctrine, does the presenter explain why the church got off track on this doctrine?
18. Does the presenter explain how this doctrine does or does not affect practical living today?
19. Does the application effectively bridge the gap between what they did then and what we do now? (comparable particulars and culturally relative customs)
20. Does the application account for the messiness and complexity of life in our world today? (e.g. an excommunicated person can go to another church in the same town, drug addiction, technology)

Examples

• Strobel’s Case for Heaven: 30/100 (weak biblical/logical).

• McCall’s Against God and Nature: 80/100 (strong, neutral survey).

Defining Comparative Theology

• Not well-known branch; historically used in several ways (apologetics, world theology, etc.).

• Restorationist interest: Compare competing Christian theologies/doctrines (not other religions).

• Opposes confessional approach (fides quaerens intellectum = faith seeking understanding).

• Restorationist posture: fides quaerens veritatem = faith seeking truth.

Why Do Comparative Theology?

• Not just understand others better; pursue actual truth.

• Individuals, churches, denominations should do this regularly.

• Current culture lacks this: Sunday services avoid debate; conferences rarely host real dialogue.

• Goal: Find space to engage alternatives constructively.

Step-by-Step Method for Comparative Theology

1. Identify main alternative positions on the doctrine.

2. Gather best resources (steelman, not strawman):

3. Systematically evaluate reasons for other position(s):

4. Systematically evaluate defeaters against your position:

5. Revise doctrine if evidence demands; invite feedback (debate, send to opponents).

Practical Tips

• Focus on reasons, not emotion or speaker charisma.

• One strong reason > five weak ones.

Conclusion

• Comparative theology essential for truth-seeking restorationists.

• Churches/denominations need open dialogue across lines.

Introduction and Purpose

• After biblical, systematic, analytic, and comparative theology, test your doctrine in the “laboratory of history.”

• If a belief is true, others likely saw it too over 2,000 years.

• Massive Christian literature survives:

  • 1st–15th centuries: 5,000–10,000 books

  • 16th–19th centuries: 200,000–300,000

  • 20th–21st centuries: 2–3 million + 20,000–25,000 new books/year

• Goal: Find doctrinal precedents; legitimacy if early voices agree.

Why Care About Historical Precedents?

• Restorationism is relentlessly past-focused: Aim to believe what apostles believed.

• Advances ok in uncovered areas, but consistency with early church preferred over contradiction.

• Full apostasy theory (whole church fell away) not supported: Jude 1:3–4 warns of intruders, but not total loss.

• Data shows slow evolution toward Catholic/Orthodox forms, not complete break.

• Historical theology explains how and why drift happened.

Defining Historical Theology

• Gregg Allison: “The study of the interpretation of Scripture and the formulation of doctrine by the church of the past.”

• Church history = events and people; historical theology = ideas/doctrines and how they changed.

Value of Historical Theology for Restorationists

• Early agreement gives legitimacy (e.g., if no evidence before Nicea, less likely original).

• No early articulation? Need explanation why not said in first centuries.

• If majority today reject your view, explain how/why church went off track.

• Protects against novel ideas; learns from past errors (e.g., indulgences, purgatory additions).

• Alister McGrath: Historical theology positive (learn from giants) and subversive (shows how theologians go astray).

Method and Challenges

• Use primary sources (original texts).

• Critical scholarship helps: authorship, dating, interpolations.

• Example: Victorinus’s Revelation commentary – Jerome edited out premillennialism; edited version copied more; original survives in modern editions.

• Tools: ANF/NPNF series (with caution), critical editions, recent translations.

Conclusion:

• Historical theology vital for restoration
• Seek old ideas, not new ones;
• Absence of early evidence requires explanation.

Introduction to Analytic Theology

• Analytic theology: Newer field (since ~2009); applies rigorous logic, philosophy, and clear reasoning to theological questions.

• Goal: Clarify doctrines, avoid fallacies, test arguments precisely.

• Complements other theologies: Biblical (content), systematic (synthesis), historical (precedents), comparative (alternatives).

• Key tool: Logic – careful reasoning that avoids errors and draws valid conclusions in pursuit of truth.

What Is Logic?

• Informal logic: Everyday reasoning (e.g., “If I eat too much, I feel bloated”).

• Formal logic: Symbolic, rigorous analysis using syllogisms.

• valid vs. invalid arguments

Major Types of Fallacies (5 Categories)

1. Fallacies of Relevance: Premises irrelevant to conclusion

• 1. Ad hominem (attack person, not argument)

  2. Appeal to authority/emotion/popularity

  3. Red herring, straw man, genetic fallacy

2. Fallacies of Presumption: Assume what needs proving

   1. Begging the question

   2. False dilemma

   3. Suppressed evidence

   4. False cause (post hoc, correlation ≠ causation)

3. Fallacies of Ambiguity: Unclear language

   1. Equivocation (word used two ways)

   2. Amphiboly, composition, division

4. Fallacies of Weak Induction: Insufficient evidence

   1. Hasty generalization

   2. Slippery slope

   3. Weak analogy

   4. Appeal to ignorance

5. Formal Fallacies: Errors in logical structure

   1. Affirming the consequent (If A→B, B true → A true)

   2. Denying the antecedent (If A→B, A false → B false)

7-Step Method for Analytic Evaluation of a Doctrine

1. Clearly identify the doctrine

2. Express the doctrine’s logical structure (premises → conclusion).

3. Identify assumptions and define key terms

4. List main reasons supporting the doctrine

5. Identify difficult texts / counter-evidence

6. Identify logical defeaters (objections) and offer explanations/counter-arguments

7. Revise doctrine in light of objections; invite feedback

Benefits of Analytic Approach

• Makes arguments precise and transparent.

• Reveals hidden assumptions and weak links.

• Hardens position against criticism or shows where revision needed.

• Encourages humility: Logic shows where we might be wrong.

Conclusion

• Analytic theology uses logic to evaluate doctrines rigorously.

• Strengthens restorationist method by testing coherence and validity.

Recap from Biblical Theology

• Biblical theology highlights differences, developments, and author-specific emphases.

• Systematic theology seeks unity/coherence across all books.

• Quote (Köstenberger & Goswell): Bible’s unity grounded in God’s unity; diversity from time, genre, authors, circumstances.

Defining Systematic Theology

• Wayne Grudem: “Any study that answers, ‘What does the whole Bible teach us today?’ about any topic.”

• Summarizes Scripture in brief, clear, carefully formulated statements.

• Focuses on present-day understanding for Christians.

• May use terms/concepts not in single author but from combining teachings.

Key Assumptions of Systematic Theology

• God inspired authors so Bible reflects what He wanted (no coercion).

• Coherence exists: One divine mind behind Scripture → consistent thought.

• Possible to identify “final form” (mature teaching) by considering all verses.

• Progressive revelation means later texts clarify earlier (development allowed).

• Bible shapes our thinking/categories (not vice versa).

Why Do Systematic Theology?

• Organizes jumbled ideas into shelves (categories).

• Helps detect contradictions or gaps.

Standard categories (traditional 8–10 volumes):

• Bibliology (Bible)

• Theology proper (God)

• Angelology/demonology

• Anthropology (humans)

• Hamartiology (sin)

• Christology

• Pneumatology (Spirit)

• Soteriology (salvation)

• Ecclesiology (church)

• Eschatology (end times)

Bible Is Organic, Not Systematic

• Scripture grows naturally (like a tree), not in neat textbook chapters.

• Our categories are helpful tools, not perfect boxes.

• Rule: If forced to shoehorn Bible into doctrine OR accept less precision, choose Bible.

• Never change Scripture to fit beliefs; change beliefs to fit Scripture.

Practical Value

• First learned categories → organized chaotic ideas.

• Allows deeper thinking on topics.

• Reminds us doctrines approximate God’s mind; stay humble.

Conclusion: Systematic theology synthesizes whole Bible for coherence.

Introduction to Theology Series

• This begins a 5-part theology section (5th floor of the tower).

• Theology = discourse about God (θεος + λογος); broadly any Christian belief/doctrine.

Preliminaries before doing theology

• Pray for help/illumination from the Spirit.

• Be willing to change beliefs if Bible evidence is strong.

• Truth has nothing to fear; hold beliefs loosely.

• Never force Bible to fit your theology (example: never alter 1 John 5:7).

• Better to live with uncertainty than adopt a flawed position.

Defining Biblical Theology

• Bible is not flat/one-time revelation (unlike Koran or single-lifetime texts).

• Written over ~2,000 years; God progressively revealed Himself and His story.

• Biblical theology studies both what Bible teaches and how teaching develops over time.

• Key quote (Michael Lawrence): Bible reveals progressively; biblical theology traces developments in redemptive history.

• Highlights diversity among authors (different focuses, emphases, vocabularies).

• Two main ways to do it:

  • Study theology of one book/author.

  • Trace major themes across whole Bible (e.g., kingdom, covenant, sin, redemption).

Progressive Revelation Explained

• God reveals more and more over time (e.g., OT shadows → NT fulfillment in Christ).

• Not contradiction, but development and maturity.

• Must read earlier texts in light of later revelation (final form matters).

Major Example: Kingdom of God

• Begins in Eden (perfect rule).

• Lost through sin.

• Abrahamic promise: land, descendants, blessing.

• Mosaic covenant: Israel as kingdom of priests.

• Davidic covenant: eternal king.

• Prophets: future restoration.

• Jesus announces kingdom arrived (Mark 1:15); demonstrates it with miracles.

• Cross/resurrection: victory over sin/death.

• Church: partial presence now.

• Future: full consummation in renewed world

Major Example: Abrahamic Covenant

• Promises: land, many descendants, blessing to nations (Gen 12, 15, 17).

• Initial fulfillment: Joshua conquers Canaan.

• Exile disrupts; return partial.

• NT: Jesus as Abraham’s seed; Gentiles blessed/grafted in (Gal 3, Rom 4).

• Land promise expands to whole world (Rom 4:13).

• Future: immense multitude inherits earth forever.

Purpose of Biblical Theology

• Understand Bible on its own terms before systematizing.

• Topical/thematic grouping stays close to biblical language and history.

• Quote (Köstenberger & Goswell): Synthesize within original settings; systematic theology goes broader/conceptual.

Conclusion: Biblical theology respects development and diversity within unity.

Humility in Application

• Be willing to change; Bible critiques us.

• Rules: Text can’t mean what it never meant; same particulars = same application.

• Application can’t contradict NT elsewhere.

• Avoid extremes (over/underspiritualize).

Application Process

• Bridge gap: Comparable particulars vs. cultural customs (e.g., holy kiss = handshake).

• Specific to general principles.

Problems

• Particularizing: Over-apply specifics.

• Generalizing: Ignore details.

• Misgrouping: Too few/many texts, wrong combos.

Questions

• If people switched to this doctrine/practice how would it affect their lives?
• If a church switched to this doctrine/practice how would they implement it?
• If a group of churches switched to this doctrine/practice, what would the implications be?
• Are there any challenges with getting along with other Christians, the government, or other institutions?
• Revise the doctrine/practice accordingly

Two Steps of Interpretation

• What it meant to them (historical context).

• What it means today (application, next lecture).

• Example: Rom 13:7 (pay taxes) – under Nero’s tyranny.

Avoid Time Problems

• Anachronism: Reading modern ideas back (e.g., Adam’s computer).

• Metachronism: Assuming ancients were primitive.

Historical Context Tools

• Date book/author.

• Research events (e.g., Nero’s reign).

• Cultural insights: Honor/shame, patron-client.

Resources

• Bible dictionaries, encyclopedias.

• Ancient literature: Josephus, Mishnah.

• Archaeology: Ur, Jericho walls.

• Epigraphy: Sennacherib Prism.

• Geography: Visit Holy Land.

Hermeneutics Overview

• Rules for exegesis (explaining text).

• Approaches:

• 1. Devotional (personal),

  2. allegorical (hidden),

  3. historical-critical (skeptical),

  4. postmodern (perspective-based),

  5. grammatical-historical (authorial intent).

• We’ll be using the grammatical-historical hermeneutic: understand original meaning

7 Steps for Interpretation

1. Pray for illumination.

2. Determine genre (narrative, poetry, etc.).

3. Establish text (variants/translations).

4. Study text: Words, grammar, structure.

5. Explore larger context: Paragraphs, shifts, chiasm, inclusio.

6. Book as whole: Author, audience, occasion, purpose, mode.

7. Biblical intertextuality: Quotes, allusions, related books.

Conclusion: Restorationists seek authorial intent.

Challenges of Translation

• “Translator, traitor”: Lose/add meaning.

• Every translation is commentary

• English groove from 500 years – hard to break traditions.

Process of Translation

• Critical texts: BHS (OT), NA/UBS (NT).

• Formal equivalence: Literal, word-for-word (e.g., NASB).

• Dynamic: Thought-for-thought, readable (e.g., NIV).

• Review: Committees avoid controversy.

Dangers

• Individual: Bias unchecked.

• Committee: Business-driven, audience-specific.

Detecting Bias

• Types: Evangelical (e.g., NIV adds “Son of God” in Mark 1:1).

• Mainline: Less bias (e.g., NRSV).

• Catholic: NABRE

• Jewish: OT focus (e.g., JPS).

• Unitarian: Removes Trinitarian bias (e.g., REV).

• Examples: Rom 9:5 (Christ as God? Ambiguous).

Conclusion : Compare translations; learn languages if possible.

Introduction

• Different story from NT; 3 parts: Manuscripts, criticism, examples.

• 3 families:

• 1. Masoretic Text (MT),

  2. Samaritan Pentateuch (SP),

  3. Septuagint (LXX).

Oldest Scrolls

• Silver Scrolls (7th c. BC): Numbers 6:24-26 blessing.

• Nash Papyrus (2nd c. BC): Ten Commandments + Shema.

Masoretic Text (MT)

• 7th-10th c. AD; standardized Hebrew with vowels.

• Leningrad Codex (1008 AD); basis for BHS.

Samaritan Pentateuch (SP)

• Samaritan version of Torah; 2nd c. BC mss.

• 6,000 variants from MT; some ideological.

Septuagint (LXX)

• Greek translation (3rd-2nd c. BC)

• Early mss.: Codex Vaticanus, Sinaiticus.

Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS, 1947)

• 250 BC-68 AD; every OT book except Esther.

• Confirm MT stability; some variants.

Textual Criticism

• Rules: Shorter readings, harmonizations suspect.

• Examples: Deut 32:8 (sons of God), Psalm 22:16 (pierced hands).

Tower Analogy

• Bible as foundation; manuscripts (mss.) copied by hand, with errors.

• Compare mss. for original readings; critical text in Greek.

• Focus: NT (OT next).

History of NT Texts

• Byzantine texts: Majority (90% of mss.), used in East.

• Latin Vulgate (Jerome, 382 AD): Based on Byzantine.

• Renaissance: Return to originals; Valla exposed forgeries.

• Reformation: Erasmus’s Greek NT (1516) – Textus Receptus.

• 18th-19th c.: Bentley– critical editions.

• Discoveries: Codex Sinaiticus (1844), over 5,800 mss. now.

Textual Criticism

• Compare variants; rules: Older mss. better, shorter/difficult readings preferred.

• Tools: TCGNT, NET Bible, AI for variants.

Examples of Variants

• 1 John 5:7: Trinity comma – late addition.

Conclusion : 29 editions of Greek NT; exciting time.

Introduction to Bible Series

• 7-part series: Manuscripts, textual criticism, translation, interpretation, application.

• Cover basics; go deeper if interested.

• Two key principles: Primacy (Bible first) and perspicuity (Bible is clear).

Primacy of Scripture

• Primacy: First importance/authority (e.g., diplomacy over war).

• Sources of knowledge: Perception, innate, introspection, memory, reasoning, others, revelation.

• Conflicts: Trust God most (ultimate expert).

• Bible as revelation: 2 Tim 3:16-17 – God-breathed, useful for teaching/correction.

• Primacy over tradition, reason, experience.

Perspicuity of Scripture

• Perspicuity: Clarity; Bible understandable without experts.

• Not all parts equally clear (e.g., Revelation vs. basics).

• Clear on essentials (salvation, morals).

• Early views: Church fathers like Chrysostom affirmed clarity.

• Reformation: Luther vs. Catholic need for magisterium.

Inerrancy and Infallibility

• Inerrancy: idea that the Bible contains no errors

• Infallibility: idea that the Bible contains no mistakes

• Historiography: Ancient standards differ on precision

Conclusion: Bible is primary and clear on essentials.

Opening Story: Execution of Michael Servetus (1553)

• In Geneva, Switzerland; executed for rejecting Trinity and predestination.

• Servetus was a genius doctor, theologian, discovered pulmonary circulation; wrote “Restoration of Christianity.”

• John Calvin had him arrested and executed (burned at stake).

• Backlash: Sparked quest for freedom of expression; ideas survived via others.

• Lesson: Past intolerance; now we have freedom to question.

Milestones Overview

• History shaped over 600 years toward modern restorationism.

• Key factors: Awareness, freedom, access to info, tools, time, desire.

• Goal: Recover authentic Christianity through dialogue.

Milestone 1: Renaissance (14th-17th c.)

• Revival of classical learning; focus on originals (ad fontes).

• Humanism: Lorenzo Valla exposed Donation of Constantine as forgery.

• Led to questioning church authority; paved way for Reformation.

Milestone 2: Reformation (16th c.)

• Martin Luther: 95 Theses (1517); challenged indulgences, purgatory.

• Sola Scriptura: Bible over tradition.

• Key figures: Calvin, Zwingli; but still burned heretics.

• Radical Reformers (Anabaptists): Restore NT practices like believer’s baptism.

• Spread via printing press (Gutenberg, 1450s).

Milestone 3: Enlightenment (17th-18th c.)

• Reason over tradition; John Locke: Toleration of diverse views.

• American influence: Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, US Constitution on religious freedom

Milestone 4: Biblical Studies Advances (19th-20th c.)

• Lexicons: Gesenius (Hebrew, 1810), Liddell-Scott (Greek, 1843).

• Textual criticism: Tischendorf discovered Codex Sinaiticus (1844).

• Archaeology: Dead Sea Scrolls (1947) confirmed ancient texts.

• Translations: More accurate

Milestone 5: Modern Tools (20th-21st c.)

• Digital access: Bible software, online resources.

• AI: Analyze texts, detect biases.

• Unprecedented freedom and information access

Conclusion: Providence led to current era for restoration.

Welcome to Restorationist Theology

• Christian theology is worthwhile and exciting.

• All Christians do theology – it’s how you summarize what the Bible says.

• Everyone is a theologian; key question: Is your theology accurate? How to improve it?

• Class goal: Think through theology comprehensively and methodically.

Defining Restorationism

• Based on 3 beliefs:

  • Christianity has drifted from originals.

  • Possible to recover original Christianity.

  • We should recover and live it today.

• Also called Christian primitivism (primitive = good, meaning early/original).

• Goal: Correct errors based on final New Testament Christianity.

• Class method: Systematic way to evaluate beliefs.

Why Restore? (Making the Case)

• Example: Prayer for travelers – includes St. Christopher (patron saint), but Bible doesn’t mention saints or praying to them.

• • Shows how traditions add non-biblical elements.

  • Restorationism questions these additions.

• Reasons to restore:

• • Bible warns against false teachings (e.g., Matt 7:15, 2 Pet 2:1).

  • Church history shows drift (e.g., indulgences, purgatory not in Bible).

  • Avoid errors from tradition; seek truth like Bereans (Acts 17:11).

Restorationist Approach

• Dares to question received doctrines.

• Slogan: “Fides quaerens veritatem” – faith seeking truth.

• Not just explaining church teachings; evaluate and seek greater truth.

• If you believe in restorationism, class teaches method to evaluate beliefs.

• Restorationists are “Bible people”: Evaluate based on Bible, let it critique faith (not squeeze Bible to fit creed).

Class Preview

• Outline of sessions:

  • Why Restore?

  • Milestones to Modern Restorationism. 3-6: Bible focus (primacy, manuscripts, translation). 7-9: Interpretation and application. 10-14: Branches of theology (biblical, systematic, etc.). 15: Method to evaluate doctrines. 16: How it changes the world.

• Goal: Equip you to judge beliefs against Bible, measure doctrines.

• Worth time to learn restoration theology.

Matthew 6:9-13 the Lord’s Prayer (disciple’s prayer) begins and ends with praise.

o Address God personally: “Our Father in heaven” — He is our Father. o Acknowledge His holiness: “Holy is Your name” — respect and awe. o Prioritize God’s will: “Your kingdom come, Your will be done” — prayer aligns us with God’s purposes. His kingdom is coming. o Depend on Him for needs: “Give us today our daily bread” — trust God for each day. o Seek forgiveness and extend it: “Forgive us… as we forgive…” — prayer involves relational restoration. o Rescue us from temptation: “Lead us not into temptation” o Seek spiritual protection: “Deliver us from the evil one” — acknowledge our need for God’s guidance. o Praise: For yours is the kingdom and the power and the glory forever, Amen.

Two Psalms believed to be David’s first:

Psalm 59:16-17 But as for me, I shall sing of Your strength; Yes, I shall joyfully sing of Your lovingkindness in the morning, For You have been my stronghold and a refuge in the day of my distress. O my strength, I will sing praises to You; For God is my stronghold, the God who shows me lovingkindness.

Psalm 7:17 I will give thanks to Yahweh according to His righteousness and will sing praise to the name of Yahweh Most High.

David’s final recorded prayer – 1 Chronicles 29:1-23

Praise belongs to God alone:

Psalm 150:1-6; Revelation 4:11 All creation is called to honor God because He is the Creator and Sustainer of life.

Praise is not for human recognition, but for God’s glory:

Psalm 115:1 – Not to us, O Yahweh, not to us, but to Your name give glory, because of Your lovingkindness because of Your truth.

Hebrews 13:15-16 Through Him [Jesus] then, let us continually offer up a sacrifice of praise to God, that is, the fruit of lips that give thanks to His name. And do not neglect doing good and sharing, for with such sacrifices God is pleased.

We can only come to God and offer true worship through Jesus, because of His sacrifice, intercession, and priesthood. The word sacrifice implies giving up something valuable. Genuine praise often involves surrendering our time, comfort, circumstances which all seems very small in comparison to the Old Testament.

Let us continually offer up – Praise is not occasional, rather it is meant to be a continual practice of believers’ lives. Just as priests in the Old Testament offered continual sacrifices, believers now offer spiritual sacrifices.

1 Peter 2:1-5

Psalm 69:30-32 I will praise the name of God with song and magnify Him with thanksgiving. And it will please Yahweh better than an ox or a young bull with horns and hoofs. The humble have seen it and are glad; You who seek God, let your heart revive.

Praise expresses gratitude and remembrance:

Psalm 103:1–22

Praise is a personal habit and a shared experience among believers:

Psalm 34:1–3 – I will bless Yahweh at all times; His praise shall continually be in my mouth. My soul will make its boast in Yahweh; The humble will hear it and rejoice. O magnify Yahweh with me and let us exalt His name together.

2 Chronicles 5:13–14 – in unison when the trumpeters and the singers were to make themselves heard with one voice to praise and to glorify Yahweh, and when they lifted up their voice accompanied by trumpets and cymbals and instruments of music, and when they praised Yahweh saying, “He indeed is good for His lovingkindness is everlasting,” then the house, the house of Yahweh, was filled with a cloud, so that the priests could not stand to minister because of the cloud, for the glory of Yahweh filled the house of God.

Praise is powerful and brings God’s presence:

Psalm 22:2-3 O my God, I cry by day, but You do not answer; and by night, but I have no rest. Yet You are holy, O You who are enthroned upon the praises of Israel.

Praise can bring deliverance and spiritual breakthrough:

Acts 16:25-26 But about midnight Paul and Silas were praying and singing hymns of praise to God, and the prisoners were listening to them; and suddenly there came a great earthquake, so that the foundations of the prison house were shaken; and immediately all the doors were opened and everyone’s chains were unfastened.

Praise will continue forever:

Revelation 5:11-14 Then I looked, and I heard the voice of many angels around the throne and the living creatures and the elders; and the number of them was myriads of myriads, and thousands of thousands, saying with a loud voice, “Worthy is the Lamb that was slain to receive power and riches and wisdom and might and honor and glory and blessing.” And every created thing which is in heaven and on the earth and under the earth and on the sea, and all things in them, I heard saying, “To Him who sits on the throne, and to the Lamb, be blessing and honor and glory and dominion forever and ever.” And the four living creatures kept saying, “Amen.” And the elders fell down and worshiped.

Speaking in Tongues gives thanks well:

1 Corinthians 14:2-4 when a person prophesy, they are speaking on behalf of God to the people that will provide edification, exhortation and consolation.

1 Corinthian 14:13-18 the word “bless” comes from the Greek “eulogeo” meaning gratitude, honor and praise to God. We get the English word “eulogize” directly from this Greek word. Eulogize means to speak well of.

When we interpret tongues it is addressed to God not to men and it will eulogize and give thanks well.

Acts 2:11 …we hear them in our own tongues speaking of the mighty deeds of God.

Acts 10:46 For they were hearing them speaking with tongues and exalting [magnifying] God.

Session 7 – Colossians 1:9-12

1 John 5:14-15; Proverbs 15:29; Ephesians 6:18

Colossians 1:9-12

For this reason, also, since the day we heard of it, we have not ceased to pray for you and to ask

↓ (that you) intention

that you may be filled with the knowledge [epignosis] of His will in all spiritual wisdom [sophia] and understanding [sunesis],

↓ (so that) further intention

so that you will walk in a manner worthy of the Lord, to please Him in all respects,

↓ further leads to

bearing fruit in every good work and increasing in the knowledge of God; strengthened with all power, according to His glorious might,

↓ (for) ultimate purpose

for the attaining of all steadfastness and patience; joyously giving thanks to the Father, who has qualified us to share in the inheritance of the saints in Light.

The prayer is constructed with three sets of three:

1 Filled with a knowledge of His will; 2 All spiritual wisdom; 3 All spiritual understanding

1 Bearing fruit in every good work; 2 Increasing in the knowledge of God;

3 Strengthened with all power

1 All steadfastness; 2 Patience; 3 Joyously giving thanks

9) For this reason also, since the day we heard of it, we have not ceased to pray for you and to ask that you may be filled with the knowledge of His will in all spiritual wisdom and understanding

we have not ceased to pray – Paul’s faith and steadfastness to pray is a challenging example for us to emulate.

filled – The Greek word for filled is plēroō meaning to bring to full measure, being completely filled up, saturated with, permeated or influenced by something.

Colossians 1:25; 2:10; 4:17; Ephesians 3:19

knowledge is gained from the Scriptures and direct revelation. The Greek word epignosis refers to knowing in a personal and transformative way. It emphasizes not just intellectual knowledge but relational and practical knowledge that inspires a deep connection with God.

Ephesians 1:17 That the God of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of glory, may give to you a spirit of wisdom and of revelation in the knowledge of Him.

Philippians 1:9-10 And this I pray, that your love may abound still more and more in real knowledge and all discernment, so that you may approve the things that are excellent, in order to be sincere and blameless until the day of Christ

2 Peter 1:2-3 Grace, and peace be multiplied to you in the knowledge of God and of Jesus our Lord; seeing that His divine power has granted to us everything pertaining to life and godliness, through the true knowledge of Him who called us by His own glory and excellence.

Spiritual Wisdom is the correct application of knowledge. We gain wisdom when we seek it from God. Proverbs 2:6 For the Lord gives wisdom; from his mouth come knowledge and understanding.

Colossians 1:27-29; 2:1-3, 23; 3:14-16; 4:5; James 1:1-8

His will – based upon verse 3 this pronoun refers to God. When the phrase “His will” is used elsewhere it always refers to God; Romans 12:2; Ephesians 1:1; and 1 Thessalonians 4:3.

Understanding comes from the Greek word sunesis which means running together like tributaries into a river; thus refers to a mental grasp or comprehension. It means being thoroughly familiar with something and apprehending its character, nature, or subtleties.

2 Timothy 2:7 Consider what I say, for the Lord will give you understanding in everything.

10) so that you will walk in a manner worthy of the Lord, to please Him in all respects, bearing fruit in every good work and increasing in the knowledge of God

Walk in a manner worthy of the Lord means to live in a way that matches or reflects the value of the One you belong to. Conduct that is in balance with the calling, gift, or relationship you’ve received. It doesn’t mean “earning worth” before God — rather, it means living consistently with the worthiness of Christ.

Ephesians 4:1 – walk in a manner worthy of the calling to which you have been called.

Philippians 1:27 – let your manner of life be worthy of the gospel of Christ.1 Thessalonians 2:12 – walk in a manner worthy of God, who calls you into His own kingdom and glory.

The word translated “worthy” from Greek is axiōs and emphasizes that believers should let their daily walk (lifestyle) line up with: Christ’s lordship, our new identity, and the fruitful, growing life that reflects God’s character.

Think of a scale: one side is the gospel / Christ’s lordship, the other is your life. To walk axiōs is to keep the balance — your actions, attitudes, and choices “weighing up” to what God has done for you in Christ.

To please Him in all respects. It means living in such a way that every part of life brings delight to the Lord (here: Jesus). Not just outward actions, but motives and heart. Not just certain religious duties, but every area of conduct. It implies comprehensive obedience and devotion — no divided loyalties.

2 Corinthians 5:9 – we make it our aim to please Him.

1 Thessalonians 4:1 – you ought to walk and to please God, just as you are doing, that you do so more and more.

Romans 12:1 – presenting our bodies as living sacrifices, “holy and acceptable to God.”

Practical Sense in Colossians 1:10

To please Him in all respects:

1. Whole-life devotion – not compartmentalized faith, but Christ’s lordship touching every part of life.

1. Continuous aim – an ongoing lifestyle, not a one-time act.

2. Fruit-bearing obedience – as the rest of the verse says: bearing fruit in every good work, growing in knowledge of God.

11) strengthened with all power, according to His glorious might, for the attaining of all steadfastness and patience; joyously

Knowledge, wisdom and understanding prepare us to live in a manner appropriate for the Lord to please Him in all respects.

As we live to please the Lord we will 1) bear fruit in every good work, 2) increase in the knowledge of God, 3) strengthened with all power. All this happens according to God’s glorious might.

Strengthened (dunamai/dunamis) to be able, capability. Here it is a present passive participle continually empowered. We are being made capable by God. Not self-strengthening, but God pouring His enabling power into us.

Power (dunamis) power, ability, capability, strength. This is the same root as “strengthened.” It often carries the idea of inherent power (the potential or capacity that resides within). Contrast with kratos dunamis is about ability/enablement (capacity to act), while kratos is about forceful might in action (dominion strength).

Might Root: (kratos) – dominion, might, ruling strength. This word is often used of God’s overwhelming, ruling power that no one can resist. Emphasis: the force or ruling power of God’s glory. It’s not about ability in potential, but sheer manifested might.

Ephesians 1:19–20 and what is the surpassing greatness of His power [dunamis] toward us who believe. These are in accordance with the working of the strength [kratos] of His might [His mighty strength] which He brought about in Christ, when He raised Him from the dead and seated Him at His right hand in the heavenly places,

Strengthened (δυναμούμενοι) – the soldier in the field actually being supplied and reinforced with that equipment and training day by day.

Power (δύναμις) – the equipment and training given to each soldier, their ability to act in combat

Might (κράτος) – the unstoppable force of the army itself: tanks, jets, missiles, sheer firepower.

The big idea: Paul’s prayer isn’t just “be strong.” It’s: May God’s unstoppable might flow into you as real power, strengthening you every moment for endurance, patience, and joy.

11) for the attaining of all steadfastness and patience; joyously

The ultimate purpose of this prayer is for us to remain faithful (steadfast and patient) until Christ comes back.

for the attaining of the Greek is εἰς Literally “unto” or “for the purpose/result of.”

steadfastness (hypomonē) Endurance, perseverance, the ability to remain under pressure without giving up. More about circumstances (hardship, trial, suffering).

patience (makrothymia) Longsuffering, restraint, self-control toward people — slowness to anger, not lashing out. More relational (how we deal with others).

12) joyously giving thanks to the Father, who has qualified us to share in the inheritance of the saints in Light.

We pray for others because we have a concern for their well-being. This prayer is rich with blessings God wants for His children.

Colossians 1:13-14 For He rescued us from the domain of darkness, and transferred us to the kingdom of His beloved Son, in whom we have redemption, the forgiveness of sins.

Colossians 4:12-13 Epaphras, who is one of your number, a bondslave of Jesus Christ, sends you his greetings, always laboring earnestly for you in his prayers, that you may stand perfect and fully assured in all the will of God. For I testify for him that he has a deep concern for you and for those who are in Laodicea and Hierapolis.

Colossians 4:2-4 Devote yourselves to prayer, keeping alert in it with an attitude of thanksgiving; praying at the same time for us as well, that God will open up to us a door for the word, so that we may speak forth the mystery of Christ, for which I have also been imprisoned; that I may make it clear in the way I ought to speak.

Eight concepts to include in prayers for others:

1. Filled with the knowledge of God’s will in all spiritual wisdom and understanding

2. Walk in a manner worthy of the Lord

3. Please Him in all respects

4. Bear fruit in every good work

5. Increase in the knowledge of God

6. Strengthened with all power, according to His glorious might

7. Attaining of all steadfastness and patience

8. Joyously giving thanks to the Father, who has qualified us to share in the inheritance of the saints in light

Intercessory prayer means to stand in the gap or plead on behalf of another person. It literally signifies stepping in for someone else. In prayer, intercession occurs when we bring another’s needs before God—asking for His help, mercy, healing, provision, or guidance on their behalf. The concepts we are studying focus on the very things God desires us to pray for others.

Paul often begins his intercessory prayers with thanksgiving. It seems to be the entry point into intercession. Thankfulness acknowledges what God has already done in the believers. The prayer then asks God to build on that foundation and take them further.

Romans 1:8-9 — First, I thank my God through Jesus Christ for you all, that your faith is spoken of throughout the whole world. For God, whom I serve in my spirit in the preaching of the gospel of His Son, is my witness as to how unceasingly I make mention of you.

1 Corinthians 1:4 — I thank my God always on your behalf, for the grace of God which is given you by Jesus Christ.

Ephesians 1:15-16 — Wherefore I also, after I heard of your faith… cease not to give thanks for you, making mention of you in my prayers.

Philippians 1:3–5 — I thank my God upon every remembrance of you, always in every prayer of mine for you all making request with joy…

Colossians 1:3 — We give thanks to God and the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, praying always for you.

1 Thessalonians 1:2 — We give thanks to God always for you all, making mention of you in our prayers.

2 Thessalonians 1:3 — We are bound to thank God always for you, brethren, as it is fitting, because that your faith grows exceedingly…

The only real exceptions are Galatians (where he skips thanksgiving entirely and jumps straight into rebuke) and 2 Corinthians (he does not have a direct “I thank God for you,” though he does express deep affection and comfort later). • Paul not only prayed for individuals he also prayed for churches. • Gratitude keeps us focused not on what was lacking, but on what God had already done among them. • Paul’s frequency of prayer is confronting. • He schedules quiet time for prayer. • Paul believed in the need and effectiveness of prayer.

Thankfulness is not just a mood when things go well, it’s meant to be the constant posture of a believer’s life. Paul writes those words while facing hardship himself, beatings, prisons, uncertainty. So, when he says “always,” it’s not naïve optimism, it’s a spiritual discipline rooted in trust.

1 Thessalonians 5:16–18 – Rejoice always, pray without ceasing, give thanks in all circumstances; for this is the will of God in Christ Jesus for you.

Ephesians 5:20 – Giving thanks always and for everything to God the Father in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ.

Colossians 3:17 – And whatever you do, in word or deed, do everything in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God the Father through him.

Philippians 1:9-11

(9) And this I pray, that your love may abound still more and more in real knowledge and all discernment,

↓ So that (10) so that you may approve the things that are excellent,

↓ In order

(10) in order to be sincere and blameless until the day of Christ;

↓ Having been (11a) having been filled with the fruit of righteousness which comes through Jesus Christ,

↓ To – (Ultimate purpose) (11b) to the glory and praise of God. 9) And this I pray, that your love may abound still more and more in real knowledge and all discernment,

For love to abound more and more it must be based upon true knowledge which comes from the Scriptures or direct revelation and discernment for every given situation. (Ephesians 1:17)

“Knowledge” – is translated from the Greek epignosis that carries the idea of “precise and thorough understanding.” An intensification is implied, that is a deep, experiential, and complete comprehension rather than a surface-level or abstract awareness.

1 John 5:14-15 This is the confidence which we have before Him, that, if we ask anything according to His will, He hears us. And if we know that He hears us in whatever we ask, we know that we have the requests which we have asked from Him.

“All discernment” – refers to the ability to judge well making careful distinctions with clarity and wisdom, distinguishing what aligns with God’s will. Such discernment and wisdom comes from God.

Proverbs 2:3-6 For if you cry for discernment, lift your voice for understanding; If you seek her as silver and search for her as for hidden treasures; then you will discern the fear of Yahweh and discover the knowledge of God. For Yahweh gives wisdom; from His mouth come knowledge and understanding.

James 1:5-6a But if any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask of God, who gives to all generously and without reproach, and it will be given to him. But he must ask in faith without any doubting …

10a) so that you may approve the things that are excellent,

When our love is based upon true knowledge and all discernment, then we can approve the things that are excellent. “Approve” – Greek dokimazo carries the idea of testing, examining, prove genuine or discern after careful testing. It was often used for testing metals or coins to see if they were authentic. To determine what is the best in every situation aligned with God’s will. It has the ability to recognize right from wrong, that which is morally excellent and spiritually beneficial. Luke 12:56 You hypocrites! You know how to analyze [dokimazo] the appearance of the earth and the sky, but why do you not analyze this present time?

Romans 12:2 And do not be conformed to this world, but be transformed by the renewing of your mind, so that you may prove [dokimazo] what the will of God is, that which is good and acceptable and perfect.

Galatians 6:4 But each one must examine [dokimazo] his own work, and then he will have reason for boasting in regard to himself alone, and not in regard to another.

10b) in order to be sincere and blameless until the day of Christ;

Sincere – The Greek word conveys the idea of being held up to the light to reveal genuineness. A sincere person is the real deal rather than one going through the motions and faking their faith.

Blameless – God desires that His children be holy and blameless before Him in love (Ephesians 1:4). This happens in Christ, by the grace of God. The guilty are now innocent, guiltless, and blameless.

Philippians 2:14-15; 2 Peter 3:13-14 We are repeatedly charged to live a blameless life.

Colossians 1:22-23 Every believer has the responsibility to remain blameless until Christ returns or we die. Our prayers for each other provide vital support.

1 Corinthians 1:4-8 We were made to be holy and blameless by the blood of Christ; however, we have the responsibility to remain holy and blameless by being firmly established and steadfast. When Jesus returns, we will be completely blameless for eternity.

To summarize: 1) by God’s grace through the sacrifice of Jesus, when we believed we are made blameless; 2) henceforth, we strive to live a blameless life; 3) if we remain faithful, when Christ returns, we will be blameless forevermore.

The way to be sincere and blameless to the day of Jesus is centered in abounding in love that is dependent upon true knowledge and all discernment and our God given ability to do it right. LOVE is primary!

11) having been filled with the fruit of righteousness which comes through Jesus Christ, to the glory and praise of God.

“The fruit of righteousness” points to the results of living the right way; and in the context of this prayer, it is a life centered in love. The fruit is listed in Galatians 5 – love, joy, peace, kindness, goodness, meekness, discipline… this all comes from our Lord Jesus Christ.

“To the glory and praise of God” – the ultimate goal of this righteous living is “to the glory and praise of God.”

1 Thessalonians 3:12-13 … may the Lord cause you to increase and abound in love for one another, and for all people, just as we also do for you; so that He may establish your hearts without blame in holiness before our God and Father at the coming of our Lord Jesus with all His saints.

1 Corinthians 1:4-8 I thank my God always concerning you for the grace of God which was given you in Christ Jesus, that in everything you were enriched in Him, in all speech and all knowledge, even as the testimony concerning Christ was confirmed in you, so that you are not lacking in any gift, awaiting eagerly the revelation of our Lord Jesus Christ, who will also confirm you….

Five concepts to include in prayers for others: 1. Your love may abound still more and more in real knowledge and all discernment. 2. You may approve the things that are excellent. 3. Be sincere and blameless until the day of Christ. 4. Filled with the fruit of righteousness which comes through Jesus Christ. 5. Live to the glory and praise of God.

John 14:13–14 – Whatever you ask in My name, that will I do, so that the Father may be glorified in the Son.

John 15:7 – If you abide in Me, and My words abide in you, ask whatever you wish, and it will be done for you.

John 16:23–24 – “If you ask the Father for anything in My name, He will give it to you… ask and you will receive, so that your joy may be made full.”

(14-15) For this reason I bow my knees before the Father, from whom every family in heaven and on earth derives its name

↓ (that) the request

(16) that He would grant you, according to the riches of His glory, to be strengthened with power through His spirit in the inner man

↓ (that) further leads to

(17) so that Christ may dwell in your hearts through faith

↓ (and that) for the purpose

(17b,18-19a) and that you, being rooted and grounded in love, may be able to comprehend with all the saints what is the breadth and length and height and depth, and to know the love of Christ which surpasses knowledge,

↓ (that) culminates in

(19b) that you may be filled up to all the fullness of God.

↓ (now) culmination – Glory to God

(20-21) Now to Him who is able to do far more abundantly beyond all that we ask or think, according to the power that works within us, to Him be the glory in the church and in Christ Jesus to all generations forever and ever. Amen.

(14-15) For this reason I bow my knees before the Father, from whom every family in heaven and on earth derives its name,

“Bow my knees” shows humility, surrender, and reverence.

1 Kings 19:18 — God tells Elijah about the remnant: “I will leave 7,000 in Israel, all the knees that have not bowed to Baal, and every mouth that has not kissed him.”

2 Chronicles 6:13 — At the dedication of the temple, Solomon kneels down before all the assembly of Israel, spreads out his hands toward heaven, and prays.

Daniel 6:10 — Daniel, after hearing of the king’s decree, “went into his house… he got down upon his knees three times a day and prayed.”

Luke 22:41 — Jesus in Gethsemane: “And he withdrew from them about a stone’s throw and knelt down and began to pray.”

Acts 20:36 — Paul, with the Ephesian elders, “knelt down and prayed with them all.”

Acts 21:5 — The disciples in Tyre, “kneeling down on the beach and praying.”

Philippians 2:10 — “So that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, in heaven and on earth and under the earth.”

Family — our spiritual family includes spiritual beings in the heavenly realm. Existence and identity for all of us comes from God. This acknowledgement magnifies the mightiness of the One to whom we pray.

(16) that He would grant you, according to the riches of His glory, to be strengthened with power through His Spirit in the inner man

Grant you — implies gift and grace. The standard and resource for this request is unlimited because it is according to God’s riches of His glory.

Riches of His glory — does not mean out of His riches (as if God gives a small portion from a limited treasury). Instead, it means in proportion to the infinite abundance of His glory.

• If a billionaire gives you $100, that’s giving out of his riches.
• If a billionaire gives you in proportion to his riches, that gift could be in the millions!

The spirit strengthens us not with just a little help, but with a supply that reflects the vast, inexhaustible wealth of God’s glory.

So, “according to the riches of His glory” means: God empowers us in a way that corresponds to His own infinite majesty and overflowing resources. The measure is not our weakness or need, but His limitless supply.

Philippians 4:19 God supplies not “out of” but “according to” His riches – stresses abundance: our needs are met in proportion to His limitless wealth, not our small requests.

Colossians 1:27 This is not just wealth—it’s the treasure of Christ’s presence given to His people.

Romans 9:23 The idea is that His generosity towards us is designed to magnify His own glory.

Ephesians 1:18 The “riches of glory” describe the value God places on His people. His “inheritance” (us!) is framed in terms of overflowing worth and majesty.

Inner man — 2 Corinthians 4:16; Romans 7:22 Describes the spiritual core of a person. The renewed, God-oriented self that comes alive through the Spirit. It contrasts with the “outer man” (our physical body, natural desires, or human weakness), which is subject to decay and limitation.

(17) so that Christ may dwell in your hearts through faith

The heart — is the center of our lives determining all we do. Christ dwelling therein implies his influence on our actions. This happens by our faith.

(17b,18-19a) and that you, being rooted and grounded in love, may be able to comprehend with all the saints what is the breadth and length and height and depth, and to know the love of Christ which surpasses knowledge,

Rooted and grounded — the roots of trees connect them with their life source, their existence. Grounded implies our spiritual stability. When we are completely centered in love we can comprehend the vastness of the love of Christ.

Comprehend — from the Greek word katalambano meaning more than intellectual knowledge it is experiential understanding.

With all saints — Puts emphasize that the comprehension of Christ’s immeasurable love is best and maybe only experienced in the community of believers.

The breadth, length, height and depth — We can measure or observe dimensions of a physical object like a house, mountain, or a piece of furniture. But to see breadth, length, height, and depth all at once is impossible. The language is intentionally stretched. It is not just talking about geometry but about something vast and beyond normal comprehension. The subject matter is Love. The prayer is to comprehend something beyond our ability.

To know the love of Christ which surpasses knowledge — We cannot exhaustively understand Christ’s love (because it’s infinite), but we can truly experience and grasp it in part. Think of the ocean: no one can hold it all in their hands, but you can step in, be surrounded by it, and truly know its reality.

Know — is from the Greek form “ginōskō” often means knowing by experience, personal encounter. We may never fully define the love of Christ with our minds, but we can live in it, be transformed by it, and grow deeper in it daily.

When this godly love is our all in all then we can be filled with all the fullness of God. God is love!

(20) Now to Him who is able to do far more abundantly beyond all that we ask or think, according to the power that works within us,

Verse 20 bookends with verse 15 putting emphasis on the one to whom we pray and His power to help. The only possible way this prayer can be answered is by Him who is able to do far more abundantly beyond all that we ask or think. He can help us comprehend that which is humanly impossible to comprehend.

(21) to Him be the glory in the church and in Christ Jesus to all generations forever and ever. Amen.

The culmination is always to glorify God.

The Concepts to Include in our Prayer:

1. Strengthened with power through His spirit in the inner man
2. Christ may dwell in your hearts through faith
3. Rooted and grounded in love
4. May comprehend the incomprehensible love of Christ
5. Be filled with the fullness of God
6. Glorify God

1 John 5:14-15; Proverbs 15:29

Ephesians 6:18 With all prayer and petition pray at all times in the Spirit, and with this in view, be on the alert with all perseverance and petition for all the saints…

Perseverance – asking, seeking, knocking. Jesus’ parables – the widow woman and friend at midnight. For all saints as we are led by the spirit.

INTERCESSION

The word “intercession” means to go between or to plead on behalf of another. It literally means to step in for someone else:

To stand in between someone and something. Matthew 8:24-27

To speak up or plead on someone’s behalf. Luke 22:31-33

To intervene in one situation for the sake of another. Hebrew 4:14-16

Throne of Grace – In contrast to the fearful approach to God under the Old Covenant (where only the high priest could enter the Most Holy Place once a year), believers now have open access to God because of Christ’s priestly intercession.

In prayer, intercession is when you pray to God for someone else — asking for His help, mercy, grace, healing, provision, or guidance for them.

• Abraham prayed for Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 18), pleading with God to spare the city if even a few righteous people were found.
• Moses interceded for Israel many times — including when they made the golden calf (Exodus 32).
• Jesus interceded for his followers in John 17, praying for their protection, unity, and sanctification.
• Paul constantly interceded for the churches — in letters like Ephesians, Philippians, and Colossians.

Jesus as the Ultimate Intercessor — Romans 8:34 who is the one who condemns? Christ Jesus is He who died, yes, rather who was raised, who is at the right hand of God, who also intercedes for us.

Hebrews 7:25 Therefore He is able also to save forever those who draw near to God through Him, since He always lives to make intercession for them.

We are Called to Intercede for Others–1 Timothy 2:1-4

We love each other and really want to help or bless, intercessory prayer is one of the great ways we can do so.

As we examine these intercessory prayers, the point is not to communicate with God in a ritualistic manner or to have a repetition of memorized words. The prayers are indeed powerful but are not a magical formula. We want to grasp the concepts to incorporate into our prayers. Similar to the Lord’s Prayer we are looking for guidelines for the things that God deems important to include in our prayers for ourselves and others.

I … do not cease giving thanks for you, while making mention of you in my prayers

↓ that (substance of the prayer)

that the God of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of glory, may give to you a spirit of wisdom and of revelation in the knowledge of Him.

↓ that leads to

I pray that the eyes of your heart may be enlightened,

↓ so that

so that you will know

↓ three of God’s desires

1 what is the hope of His calling,

2 what are the riches of the glory of His inheritance in the saints,

3 and what is the surpassing greatness of His power toward us who believe.

↓ In accordance with

These are in accordance with the working of the strength of His might

which He brought about in Christ, when He raised Him from the dead and seated Him at His right hand in the heavenly places,

Ephesians 1:17 that the God of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of glory, may give to you a spirit of wisdom and of revelation in the knowledge of Him.

The prayer is addressed to God the Father and not Jesus our Lord.

Spirit — The prayer is for those who already have the holy spirit. So, spirit here means an attitude, mindset, disposition or a pervasive influence. Similar to Galatians 6:1 “spirit of gentleness”; Romans 8:15 “spirit of slavery”, “spirit of adoption”, 2 Timothy 1:7 “spirit of fear”.

Wisdom — Godly wisdom comes from God. Proverbs 2:6-7 We must be connected to God to gain His wisdom.

Wisdom is essential for truly knowing God, especially in a world affected by evil.

Matthew 7:15; Matthew 24:11; Acts 20:29–30; 2 Corinthians 11:13–15; Galatians 1:6–9; 2 Peter 2:1–3

James 1:5 But if any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask of God, who gives to all generously and without reproach [w/o finding fault, w/o rebuke] and it will be given to him.

Revelation — an unveiling or revealing of what is hidden — God making Himself and His ways known to us.

Knowledge (epignōsis) — is a deep, personal, experiential knowledge, not just knowing facts about God, but truly knowing Him in relationship. God wants us to know Him and His desires for human family.

THE SPIRIT OF WISDOM AND REVELATION IN THE KNOWLEDGE OF GOD!

Can you think of anyone that might benefit from this prayer?

Ephesians 1:18 I pray that the eyes of your heart may be enlightened, so that you will know…

Heart — the core of your being, including how you think, what you choose, what you feel. It is the well-spring of life, rather than some flippant, meaningless or random thought.

Proverbs 4:23 (REV) More than anything else you protect, guard your heart, because from it flow the issues of life.

Enlightened — means to be illuminated by light — not just in the sense of knowing something, but truly understanding and comprehending it on a deeper, spiritual level. It’s the difference between hearing a truth and having it come alive inside you, where it changes how you see and live.

EYES OF YOUR HEART MAY BE ENLIGHTENED

Can you think of anyone that might benefit from you praying this for them?

Ephesians 1:18 …what is the hope of His calling, what are the riches of the glory of His inheritance in the saints

The emphasis is on His, not ours. God desires for us to understand His heart, His purposes, and our place within them.

His calling

Genesis 1:26-28 God’s original calling was for humans to be like Him on the earth.

Colossians 1:15 He [Jesus] is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation.

Hebrews 1:3 And He [Jesus] is the radiance of His glory and the exact representation of His nature and upholds all things by the word of His power.

In Jesus we see what God wanted for all humans.

Romans 8:29 For those whom He foreknew, He also predestined to become conformed to the image of His Son….

Ephesians 1:18 what are the riches of the glory of His inheritance in the saints:

Inheritance:

Ephesians 1:11, 13-15 We are His inheritance, and He is ours.

1 Peter 1:3-5; Hebrews 9:15; Romans 8:16-17

WHAT IS THE HOPE OF HIS CALLING, WHAT ARE THE RICHES OF THE GLORY OF HIS INHERITANCE IN THE SAINTS

Can you think of someone who might benefit from your prayer regarding this subject?

Ephesians 1:19 and what is the surpassing greatness of His power toward us who believe. These are in accordance with the working of the strength of His might.

20- 23 The same power that did what it did for Jesus.

2 Corinthians 5:17 God wants you to know His power that made you who you are today and will make you who are when Christ returns. The same power that did for Jesus will do it for you.

Romans 8:29 For those whom He foreknew, He also predestined to become conformed to the image of His Son, so that He would be the firstborn among many brethren.

If you walk with God, you already experience this power in you so we can have confidence that same power will transform you when Christ returns.

WHAT IS THE SURPASSING GREATNESS OF HIS POWER TOWARD US WHO BELIEVE.

Can you think of anyone that might benefit from your prayers?

We can add the following for our intercessory prayers for others:

1. The spirit of wisdom and of revelation in the knowledge of God.
2. The eyes of your heart may be enlightened.

3. Know what is the hope of His calling.

4. Know the riches of the glory of His inheritance in the saints,

5. Know the surpassing greatness of His power toward us who believe.

1 John 5:14-15; Proverbs 15:29

Ephesians 6:18 With all prayer and petition pray at all times in the Spirit, and with this in view, be on the alert with all perseverance and petition for all the saints…

Perseverance – asking, seeking, knocking. Jesus’ parables – the widow woman and friend at midnight. For all saints as we are led by the spirit.

INTERCESSION

The word “intercession” means to go between or to plead on behalf of another. It literally means to step in for someone else:

To stand in between someone and something. Matthew 8:24-27

To speak up or plead on someone’s behalf. Luke 22:31-33

To intervene in one situation for the sake of another. Hebrew 4:14-16

Throne of Grace – In contrast to the fearful approach to God under the Old Covenant (where only the high priest could enter the Most Holy Place once a year), believers now have open access to God because of Christ’s priestly intercession.

In prayer, intercession is when you pray to God for someone else — asking for His help, mercy, grace, healing, provision, or guidance for them.

• Abraham prayed for Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 18), pleading with God to spare the city if even a few righteous people were found.
• Moses interceded for Israel many times — including when they made the golden calf (Exodus 32).
• Jesus interceded for his followers in John 17, praying for their protection, unity, and sanctification.
• Paul constantly interceded for the churches — in letters like Ephesians, Philippians, and Colossians.

Jesus as the Ultimate Intercessor — Romans 8:34 who is the one who condemns? Christ Jesus is He who died, yes, rather who was raised, who is at the right hand of God, who also intercedes for us.

Hebrews 7:25 Therefore He is able also to save forever those who draw near to God through Him, since He always lives to make intercession for them.

We are Called to Intercede for Others–1 Timothy 2:1-4

We love each other and really want to help or bless, intercessory prayer is one of the great ways we can do so.

As we examine these intercessory prayers, the point is not to communicate with God in a ritualistic manner or to have a repetition of memorized words. The prayers are indeed powerful but are not a magical formula. We want to grasp the concepts to incorporate into our prayers. Similar to the Lord’s Prayer we are looking for guidelines for the things that God deems important to include in our prayers for ourselves and others.

I … do not cease giving thanks for you, while making mention of you in my prayers

↓ that (substance of the prayer)

that the God of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of glory, may give to you a spirit of wisdom and of revelation in the knowledge of Him.

↓ that leads to

I pray that the eyes of your heart may be enlightened,

↓ so that

so that you will know

↓ three of God’s desires

1 what is the hope of His calling,

2 what are the riches of the glory of His inheritance in the saints,

3 and what is the surpassing greatness of His power toward us who believe.

↓ In accordance with

These are in accordance with the working of the strength of His might

which He brought about in Christ, when He raised Him from the dead and seated Him at His right hand in the heavenly places,

Ephesians 1:17 that the God of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of glory, may give to you a spirit of wisdom and of revelation in the knowledge of Him.

The prayer is addressed to God the Father and not Jesus our Lord.

Spirit — The prayer is for those who already have the holy spirit. So, spirit here means an attitude, mindset, disposition or a pervasive influence. Similar to Galatians 6:1 “spirit of gentleness”; Romans 8:15 “spirit of slavery”, “spirit of adoption”, 2 Timothy 1:7 “spirit of fear”.

Wisdom — Godly wisdom comes from God. Proverbs 2:6-7 We must be connected to God to gain His wisdom.

Wisdom is essential for truly knowing God, especially in a world affected by evil.

Matthew 7:15; Matthew 24:11; Acts 20:29–30; 2 Corinthians 11:13–15; Galatians 1:6–9; 2 Peter 2:1–3

James 1:5 But if any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask of God, who gives to all generously and without reproach [w/o finding fault, w/o rebuke] and it will be given to him.

Revelation — an unveiling or revealing of what is hidden — God making Himself and His ways known to us.

Knowledge (epignōsis) — is a deep, personal, experiential knowledge, not just knowing facts about God, but truly knowing Him in relationship. God wants us to know Him and His desires for human family.

THE SPIRIT OF WISDOM AND REVELATION IN THE KNOWLEDGE OF GOD!

Can you think of anyone that might benefit from this prayer?

Ephesians 1:18 I pray that the eyes of your heart may be enlightened, so that you will know…

Heart — the core of your being, including how you think, what you choose, what you feel. It is the well-spring of life, rather than some flippant, meaningless or random thought.

Proverbs 4:23 (REV) More than anything else you protect, guard your heart, because from it flow the issues of life.

Enlightened — means to be illuminated by light — not just in the sense of knowing something, but truly understanding and comprehending it on a deeper, spiritual level. It’s the difference between hearing a truth and having it come alive inside you, where it changes how you see and live.

EYES OF YOUR HEART MAY BE ENLIGHTENED

Can you think of anyone that might benefit from you praying this for them?

Ephesians 1:18 …what is the hope of His calling, what are the riches of the glory of His inheritance in the saints

The emphasis is on His, not ours. God desires for us to understand His heart, His purposes, and our place within them.

His calling

Genesis 1:26-28 God’s original calling was for humans to be like Him on the earth.

Colossians 1:15 He [Jesus] is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation.

Hebrews 1:3 And He [Jesus] is the radiance of His glory and the exact representation of His nature and upholds all things by the word of His power.

In Jesus we see what God wanted for all humans.

Romans 8:29 For those whom He foreknew, He also predestined to become conformed to the image of His Son….

Ephesians 1:18 what are the riches of the glory of His inheritance in the saints:

Inheritance:

Ephesians 1:11, 13-15 We are His inheritance, and He is ours.

1 Peter 1:3-5; Hebrews 9:15; Romans 8:16-17

WHAT IS THE HOPE OF HIS CALLING, WHAT ARE THE RICHES OF THE GLORY OF HIS INHERITANCE IN THE SAINTS

Can you think of someone who might benefit from your prayer regarding this subject?

Ephesians 1:19 and what is the surpassing greatness of His power toward us who believe. These are in accordance with the working of the strength of His might.

20- 23 The same power that did what it did for Jesus.

2 Corinthians 5:17 God wants you to know His power that made you who you are today and will make you who are when Christ returns. The same power that did for Jesus will do it for you.

Romans 8:29 For those whom He foreknew, He also predestined to become conformed to the image of His Son, so that He would be the firstborn among many brethren.

If you walk with God, you already experience this power in you so we can have confidence that same power will transform you when Christ returns.

WHAT IS THE SURPASSING GREATNESS OF HIS POWER TOWARD US WHO BELIEVE.

Can you think of anyone that might benefit from your prayers?

We can add the following for our intercessory prayers for others:

1. The spirit of wisdom and of revelation in the knowledge of God.
2. The eyes of your heart may be enlightened.

3. Know what is the hope of His calling.

4. Know the riches of the glory of His inheritance in the saints,

5. Know the surpassing greatness of His power toward us who believe.

Pray With Sincerity, not for Show:

Matthew 6:1-6; 23:1-33 Avoid hypocrisy. Do not be like the Pharisees and

Scribes who love public recognition. Instead, be authentic and sincere. Outwardly, they appeared righteous, but inside were full of greed and self­ indulgence.

Judas Iscariot (John 12:4-6; Matthew 26:14-25) – Pretended concern for the poor when criticizing Mary for using expensive ointment, but he really was a thief.

Ananias and Sapphira (Acts 5:1-11) – Pretended they were giving all the proceeds from selling property while secretly holding some back.

Isaiah 29:13 Then the Lord said, “because this people draw near with their words and honor Me with their lip service, but they remove their hearts far from Me, and their reverence for Me consists of tradition learned by rote.

Avoid Meaningless Repetition:

Matthew 6:7-8 Avoid mechanical or habitual repetition void of understanding the meaning of what is prayed. This is not an instruction to avoid repetition, rather avoid meaningless rote repetition.

The Lord’s prayer, Matthew 6:9-14, has become for many what Jesus told us to avoid.

Jesus contrasts the mechanical approach with a relationship-based approach. God already knows your needs, so prayer is not about informing Him or trying to persuade Him with word count. Prayer is not about formulas, rituals, or endless repetition. God values sincerity and trust.

The Lord’s Prayer is a Model, not just a Recitation:

Matthew 6:9-13; Luke 11:2-4

• Address God personally: “Our Father in heaven” – He is our Father.
• Acknowledge His holiness: “Holy is Your name” – respect and awe.
• Prioritize God’s will: “Your kingdom come, Your will be done” – prayer aligns us with God’s purposes. His kingdom is coming.
• Depend on Him for needs: “Give us today our daily bread” – trust God for each day.
• Seek forgiveness and extend it: “Forgive us… as we forgive… ” – prayer involves relational restoration.
• Rescue us from temptation: “Lead us not into temptation”
• Seek spiritual protection: “Deliver us from the evil one” – acknowledge our need for God’s guidance.

Be Persistent:

Matthew 7:7-11 The Greek uses present tense imperatives, which usually carry the sense of continuous or repeated action, so it can be properly translated “asking, seeking, and knocking”. This is a continuous ongoing action.

Luke 11:1-13 If even a reluctant friend will eventually respond to persistent knocking (because of shameless boldness), how much more will your Father who is loving and generous respond to His children who persist in prayer. It shows that persistence is not about nagging God into submission, but about demonstrating genuine need, trust, and reliance on Him.

Luke 18:1-8 It teaches not just persistence in daily prayer, but perseverance in hope when God’s timing feels delayed.

Pray with Humility:

Luke 18:9-14 Jesus sets up a contrast – Pharisee vs. tax collector, the opposite ends of social/religious respectability. The most probable vs. the least likely. Not only does he teach humility, he exposes the religious hypocrisy.

The tax collector’s humble cry “God, be merciful to me, a sinner” was accepted by God, while the Pharisee’s self-congratulation was rejected.

2 Chronicles 7:14 If my people who are called by my name humble themselves, and pray and seek my face …then I will hear from heaven and forgive their sin.

Ezra 9:5-6; Psalm 51:17; James 4:6, 10; 1 Peter 5:6-7

Luke 7:37-38 The sinful woman’s act of humble devotion is as much prayer as any spoken words.

Forgiveness and Reconciliation Matter:

Mark 11:25; Matthew 6:12 – Prayer is hindered if we cling to unforgiveness. Prayer opens fellowship with God, but unforgiveness blocks that fellowship.

If you have difficulty forgiving someone, your first prayer is to ask God to help you forgive. He will help.

Ephesians 4:32; Colossians 3:13

Pray with Faith:

Matthew 21:18-22 Jesus provides an example for understanding faith and prayer.

Mark 11:13-24 Believe that God hears and will answer according to His will. Faith is essential, though faith doesn’t mean forcing God’s hand – it’s trusting His wisdom.

Thankfulness and Prayer:

John 6:11; Matthew 15:36 Jesus before multiplying the bread and fishes

Luke 22:17-19 Last supper John 11:41 Lazarus’ tomb Follow Jesus’ Example:

Jesus often prayed alone (Mark 1:35), before major decisions (Luke 6:12), in

gratitude (John 11:41), and even in deep distress (Luke 22:41-44).

His prayers showed intimacy with the Father, submission to God’s will, and reliance on Him in all circumstances.

Pray With Sincerity, not for Show:

Matthew 6:1-6; 23:1-33 Avoid hypocrisy. Do not be like the Pharisees and

Scribes who love public recognition. Instead, be authentic and sincere. Outwardly, they appeared righteous, but inside were full of greed and self­ indulgence.

Judas Iscariot (John 12:4-6; Matthew 26:14-25) – Pretended concern for the poor when criticizing Mary for using expensive ointment, but he really was a thief.

Ananias and Sapphira (Acts 5:1-11) – Pretended they were giving all the proceeds from selling property while secretly holding some back.

Isaiah 29:13 Then the Lord said, “because this people draw near with their words and honor Me with their lip service, but they remove their hearts far from Me, and their reverence for Me consists of tradition learned by rote.

Avoid Meaningless Repetition:

Matthew 6:7-8 Avoid mechanical or habitual repetition void of understanding the meaning of what is prayed. This is not an instruction to avoid repetition, rather avoid meaningless rote repetition.

The Lord’s prayer, Matthew 6:9-14, has become for many what Jesus told us to avoid.

Jesus contrasts the mechanical approach with a relationship-based approach. God already knows your needs, so prayer is not about informing Him or trying to persuade Him with word count. Prayer is not about formulas, rituals, or endless repetition. God values sincerity and trust.

The Lord’s Prayer is a Model, not just a Recitation:

Matthew 6:9-13; Luke 11:2-4

• Address God personally: “Our Father in heaven” – He is our Father.
• Acknowledge His holiness: “Holy is Your name” – respect and awe.
• Prioritize God’s will: “Your kingdom come, Your will be done” – prayer aligns us with God’s purposes. His kingdom is coming.
• Depend on Him for needs: “Give us today our daily bread” – trust God for each day.
• Seek forgiveness and extend it: “Forgive us… as we forgive… ” – prayer involves relational restoration.
• Rescue us from temptation: “Lead us not into temptation”
• Seek spiritual protection: “Deliver us from the evil one” – acknowledge our need for God’s guidance.

Be Persistent:

Matthew 7:7-11 The Greek uses present tense imperatives, which usually carry the sense of continuous or repeated action, so it can be properly translated “asking, seeking, and knocking”. This is a continuous ongoing action.

Luke 11:1-13 If even a reluctant friend will eventually respond to persistent knocking (because of shameless boldness), how much more will your Father who is loving and generous respond to His children who persist in prayer. It shows that persistence is not about nagging God into submission, but about demonstrating genuine need, trust, and reliance on Him.

Luke 18:1-8 It teaches not just persistence in daily prayer, but perseverance in hope when God’s timing feels delayed.

Pray with Humility:

Luke 18:9-14 Jesus sets up a contrast – Pharisee vs. tax collector, the opposite ends of social/religious respectability. The most probable vs. the least likely. Not only does he teach humility, he exposes the religious hypocrisy.

The tax collector’s humble cry “God, be merciful to me, a sinner” was accepted by God, while the Pharisee’s self-congratulation was rejected.

2 Chronicles 7:14 If my people who are called by my name humble themselves, and pray and seek my face …then I will hear from heaven and forgive their sin.

Ezra 9:5-6; Psalm 51:17; James 4:6, 10; 1 Peter 5:6-7

Luke 7:37-38 The sinful woman’s act of humble devotion is as much prayer as any spoken words.

Forgiveness and Reconciliation Matter:

Mark 11:25; Matthew 6:12 – Prayer is hindered if we cling to unforgiveness. Prayer opens fellowship with God, but unforgiveness blocks that fellowship.

If you have difficulty forgiving someone, your first prayer is to ask God to help you forgive. He will help.

Ephesians 4:32; Colossians 3:13

Pray with Faith:

Matthew 21:18-22 Jesus provides an example for understanding faith and prayer.

Mark 11:13-24 Believe that God hears and will answer according to His will. Faith is essential, though faith doesn’t mean forcing God’s hand – it’s trusting His wisdom.

Thankfulness and Prayer:

John 6:11; Matthew 15:36 Jesus before multiplying the bread and fishes

Luke 22:17-19 Last supper John 11:41 Lazarus’ tomb Follow Jesus’ Example:

Jesus often prayed alone (Mark 1:35), before major decisions (Luke 6:12), in

gratitude (John 11:41), and even in deep distress (Luke 22:41-44).

His prayers showed intimacy with the Father, submission to God’s will, and reliance on Him in all circumstances.

This final section of Mark’s Gospel brings the Passion narrative to its climax. The crucifixion of Jesus is marked by irony, mockery, and cosmic signs. Yet, it is also the moment of revelation—Jesus’ true identity is revealed through his suffering. The narrative ends not with triumphal appearances but with an empty tomb and trembling disciples, inviting the reader to respond in faith.

Narrative Function in the Gospel of Mark Mark 15:21-16:8 concludes the Gospel with several paradoxes and unexpected reversals: glory through shame, kingship through suffering, and victory through apparent defeat.

• Brings together prophetic fulfillment, human indignity, and divine purpose.
• Jesus’ identity is finally acknowledged in unexpected places and by unexpected people.
• The Gospel ends abruptly, forcing readers to wrestle with the implications of the resurrection.

The Crucifixion of Jesus (15:21-32)

Simon of Cyrene is compelled to carry Jesus’ cross. Jesus is crucified at Golgotha, offered wine mixed with myrrh (which he refuses), and mocked by onlookers and religious leaders. Two criminals are crucified along with him.

• Simon represents involuntary discipleship—bearing the cross for another.
• Jesus’ refusal of painkillers shows his determination to face the suffering.
• The inscription “King of the Jews” becomes an ironic proclamation of truth.

Narrative Contribution:

• Marks the peak of Jesus’ suffering and public humiliation.
• Fulfills numerous Old Testament passages (cf. Psalm 22, Isaiah 53).
• Sets the stage for Jesus’ impending death

The Death of Jesus (15:33-41)

At noon, darkness covers the land. Jesus cries out quoting an OT psalm and then breathes his last. The temple curtain is torn in two, and the Roman centurion proclaims Jesus as “the Son of God.”

• Darkness symbolizes divine judgment.
• Jesus’ cry draws upon the psalmist’s cry of anguish (Ps 22:1)
• The torn curtain signifies the opening of direct access to God.
• The centurion, a Gentile, is the first person to proclaim Jesus’ true identify.
  • This Gentile soldier is the first person (besides the heavenly voice or unclean spirits) to identify Jesus with this title (cf. 1:11; 9:7; 3:11; 5:7).

Narrative Contribution:

• Jesus’ death becomes the moment of revelation, not defeat.
• Reverses expectations: God’s purpose for the Messiah is revealed through suffering, not a grand triumph.
• Focuses the scope of discipleship on Gentiles and women. They are the ones who understand and truly “see.”

The Burial of Jesus (15:42-47)

Joseph of Arimathea, a respected member of the council, decides to ask Pilate for Jesus’ body. Jesus is confirmed dead, Joseph buries him in a rock tomb. Women disciples are mentioned watching where he is laid.

• Joseph’s courage is contrasted with the cowardice of others.
• The quick burial fulfills Jewish law regarding the Sabbath and people who are executed on a tree (cf. Deut 21:43).
• Women are highlighted as the only consistent witnesses throughout the Passion events.

Narrative Contribution:

• Emphasizes the reality and finality of Jesus’ death.
  • Pilates response was mentioned perhaps to combat any rumors that had spread about a mistake concerning Jesus’ death, that he was taken down prematurely before he died.
• Preserves the narrative continuity for the resurrection account.
• Foreshadows the resurrection by noting the women’s careful observance of Jesus’ tomb.

The Resurrection of Jesus (16:1-8)

Early on the first day of the week (Sunday), three women come to anoint Jesus but find the stone rolled away. A young man in white tells them Jesus has risen, and they are to tell the disciples he will meet them in Galilee. The women flee in fear and say nothing to anyone.

• The women were continuing to minister to Jesus even after his death.
• The rolled-away stone and an angelic figure suggests divine intervention.
• The empty tomb is the silent witness to God’s power over death in raising Jesus back to life.
• The command to go to Galilee recalls Jesus’ earlier prophecy.
  • “But after I am raised, I will go ahead of you into Galilee.” (Mk 14:28)

Narrative Contribution:

• The resurrection is announced but not seen, which suggests that faith is required.
• The abrupt ending (in most manuscripts) creates dramatic tension: Will the message be carried forward?
• Challenges readers to become the faithful messengers the disciples failed to be.
• The great irony in Mark is that when people are commanded to not reveal who Jesus is, they often disobey. But her when the women are commanded to announce what has happened, they fail to do so!

This section portrays the intensifying isolation of Jesus as he moves from Gethsemane to Golgotha. The narrative shifts from private anguish to public humiliation, revealing the failure of people to recognized God’s purpose for the Messiah. Jesus remains steady while those around him (i.e., his disciples) either fall asleep, flee, or actively deny him. The irony is heavy: the true King is rejected and mocked as a false king and messiah.

Narrative Function in the Gospel of Mark Mark 14:32-15:20 traces Jesus’ physical and emotional descent, underscoring the totality of his abandonment by his disciples and his isolation in suffering.

• Emphasizes Jesus’ solitude in fulfilling God’s will.
• Highlights prophetic fulfillment and human failure.
• Contrasts Jesus’ composure with the chaos and cruelty around him.
• Prepares the reader for the crucifixion as the culmination of the Passion narrative.

Jesus Prays in Gethsemane (14:32-42)

Jesus brings Peter, James, and John deeper into the garden and shares his distress. While he prays for another way, he ultimately submits to God’s will. Meanwhile, the disciples repeatedly fall asleep.

• Jesus is portrayed with intense emotions—“deeply distressed and troubled.”
• His prayer reveals the conflict that he struggles with: fulfilling the divine purpose for him, or escaping imminent suffering and death.
• The disciples’ inability to stay awake highlights human frailty and spiritual unpreparedness.

Narrative Contribution:

• Reinforces Jesus’ resolve to follow God’s plan, despite the physical and emotional agony.
• Foreshadows the theme of abandonment even before being arrested.
• Draws parallels to Israel’s failure to remain faithful in times of trial.

Jesus Is Betrayed and Arrested (14:43-52)

Judas arrives with a crowd of armed men and identifies Jesus with a kiss—a symbol of friendship that is an act of betrayal. Jesus is arrested, and all his disciples flee.

• The kiss intensifies the emotional sting of Judas’ betrayal.
• The soldiers are afraid of Jesus—“Have you come out as against a robber?”—reveals the absurdity of their fear.
• The unnamed young man fleeing naked may suggest the complete desertion and vulnerability of Jesus.

Narrative Contribution:

• Climactic fulfillment of Jesus’ prediction of betrayal and abandonment.
• Highlights the turning point where Jesus is now in the hands of hostile forces.
• Sets the stage for ensuing trials and public humiliation, ultimately ending with his crucifixion.

Jesus Before the Sanhedrin (14:53-65)

Jesus is brought before the Jewish council. False witnesses contradict each other. Finally, Jesus openly affirms that he is the Messiah, the Son of Man. The high priest accuses him of blasphemy, and Jesus is condemned to death.

• Jesus remains mostly silent, fulfilling Isaiah 53:7—” He was oppressed, yet he suffered willingly, and he did not open his mouth. As a lamb that is led to the slaughter and as a sheep that before its shearers is mute, so he did not open his mouth.
• His bold statement, “You will see the Son of Man…,” seals his fate.
• The council’s verdict is driven by offense at his claim to be the Messiah, not some legal injustice that he has committed.

Narrative Contribution:

• In the trial: Jesus’ identity is the issue, not any political crime.
• Affirms Jesus’ messianic identity in the face of deadly opposition.
• Introduces the theme of mockery and abuse that intensifies in the next scenes.

Peter Denies Jesus (14:66-72)

While Jesus is on trial, Peter is in the courtyard. He denies knowing Jesus three times, just as Jesus foretold. When the rooster crows, Peter breaks down in tears.

• Peter’s progression from curiosity to fear to denial mirrors human weakness under pressure.
• Contrasts Peter’s bravado (cf. 14:31) and his failure.
• Peter’s emotional response shows remorse, setting the stage for later restoration.

Narrative Contribution:

• Fulfills Jesus’ specific prophecy about his disciples scattering.
• Deepens the theme of abandonment—even the boldest disciple fails Jesus.
• Highlights the isolation of Jesus, even among his closest friends.

Jesus Before Pilate (15:1-15)

Jesus is handed over to the Roman governor. Pilate is puzzled by Jesus’ silence and perceives that the chief priests are acting out of envy. Still, he gives in to the crowd and orders Jesus’ crucifixion.

• Jesus’ silence fulfills Isaiah’s prophecy and frustrates Pilate’s expectations.
• The crowd demands Barabbas’s release, reversing justice.
• Pilate’s attempt to appease the crowd by having Jesus flogged is a political compromise.

Narrative Contribution:

• Shifts the trial from religious to political—Rome now becomes complicit.
• Highlights the fickle nature of public opinion and the cost of cowardly leadership.
• Reinforces the innocence of Jesus contrasted with the guilt of those all around him.

The Soldiers Mock Jesus (15:16-20)

Inside the governor’s palace, Roman soldiers dress Jesus in purple, crown him with thorns, and mock him as “King of the Jews.” After this cruel parody, they lead him out to be crucified.

• The purple robe and crown of thorns symbolize their twisted irony of his kingship.
• Their mockery fulfills prophecies (e.g., Isaiah 50:6) while showing Rome’s brutal contempt and violent antagonism.
• Jesus endures all the pain and humiliation without protest.

Narrative Contribution:

• Builds toward the crucifixion with layers of psychological and physical suffering.
• Ironically, in the midst of the mockery, people unknowingly speak the truth: Jesus is the true King (Messiah).

This section of Mark initiates the Passion narrative and is rich with irony, contrast, and prophetic fulfillment. Jesus is surrounded by plots of betrayal, yet he remains composed and purposeful. Acts of devotion (the anointing) are set against treachery (Judas’s betrayal), and the Last Supper becomes both a moment of intimate fellowship and the announcement of looming failure among the disciples

Narrative Function in the Gospel of Mark

Mark 14:1-31 functions as the emotional and contextual setup for Jesus’ subsequent arrest and crucifixion.

• Contrasts love and betrayal, faithfulness and failure.
• Shifts the focus from Jesus’ public ministry to his personal sacrifice.
• Reveals Jesus’ awareness of divine timing and prophetic fulfillment.
• Establishes the theological meaning of Jesus’ death through the Last Supper.

The Plot to Kill Jesus (14:1–2)

Religious leaders scheme to arrest and kill Jesus but want to avoid doing it during the Passover festival to prevent unrest in Jerusalem.

• Shows human attempts to control timing and power.
• Ironically, Jesus will die at Passover, aligning with God’s redemptive timetable.

Narrative Contribution:

• Introduces the theme of Jesus’ death as inevitable yet divinely-intended.
• Sets a backdrop of rising danger and scheming that preludes Jesus’ arrest.

Jesus Anointed at Bethany (14:3–9)

At a meal in Bethany, an unnamed woman anoints Jesus with costly perfume. Some present criticize her for waste, but Jesus defends her, saying she has anointed him for burial.

• Affirms the woman’s extravagant devotion to Jesus.
• The anointing symbolizes preparation for Jesus’ death and burial.
• Highlights how acts of love, such as this, are valued in God’s view.

Narrative Contribution:

• Contrasts sharply with Judas’s betrayal that follows.
• Offers a foreshadowing of Jesus’ imminent death and burial.
• Honors a woman’s insight and sacrifice, while others continue to misunderstand.

Judas Agrees to Betray Jesus (14:10–11)

Judas Iscariot, one of the Twelve, seeks out the chief priests and agrees to betray Jesus for money.

• Portrays betrayal not by an outsider, but a close companion.
• Echoes Psalm 41:9—“even my close friend…has lifted his heel against me.”
• Highlights the narrative tension between the schemes of the Adversary, and the sacrifice that Jesus understood God was calling him to make.

Narrative Contribution:

• Deepens the emotional weight of the coming Passion narrative.
• Sets Jesus’ betrayal into motion.
• Offers a sharp contrast with the woman’s sacrificial gift (which was very costly).

Preparations for the Passover (14:12–16)

Jesus sends two disciples ahead to prepare the Passover meal, giving them specific instructions that unfold just as he said they would.

• Reinforces Jesus’ composure during the final events leading up to his death.
• Connects the Exodus Passover to Jesus’ new covenant sacrifice.

Narrative Contribution:

• Builds the anticipation for the Last Supper.
• Emphasizes the revelation knowledge that Jesus receives for this important occasion.

Jesus Predicts His Betrayal (14:17–21)

At the table, Jesus announces that one of the Twelve sitting there will betray him. The disciples are distressed and begin asking if it is them. Jesus confirms the betrayer is one “dipping bread into the bowl” with him.

• Demonstrates Jesus’ knowledge of what Judas has done.
• Emphasizes the gravity of sin and betrayal—even among the Jesus’ chosen.
• Affirms God’s divine plan in light of the betrayal: “The Son of Man goes as it is written of him.”

Narrative Contribution:

• Heightens dramatic tension within Jesus’ closest followers.
• Portrays Jesus’ calm acceptance of his path to the cross, showing his acknowledgement of God’s ordained purpose for him.
• Places the communal intimacy of the Last Supper with the hidden treachery that will lead to the Passion sequence.

The Institution of the Lord’s Supper (14:22–25)

During the meal, Jesus takes bread and wine and redefines them as his body and blood—symbols of the new covenant.

• Establishes the foundational Christian practice of communion.
• Jesus interprets his death as a sacrificial, covenant-making act.
• Jesus makes an allusion to Isaiah 53 (“poured out for many”).

Narrative Contribution:

• Transforms a traditional Jewish festival meal into a new covenant ceremony.
• Prophetically reframes the meaning of Jesus’ death for his disciples.
• Offers lasting spiritual instruction amidst the rising context of confusion and fear.

Jesus Predicts Peter’s Denial (14:26–31)

After singing a hymn, Jesus predicts that all his disciples will fall away (quoting Zech. 13:7). Peter insists he will remain faithful, even to death, but Jesus prophesies Peter’s threefold denial before the rooster crows twice.

• Shows Jesus’ foreknowledge and fulfillment of Scripture.
• Highlights human weakness—even in Jesus’ most zealous follower (Peter).
• Emphasizes the theme of Peter’s failure and human weakness.

Narrative Contribution:

• Foreshadows the subsequent abandonment in Gethsemane and Peter’s denials during Jesus’ trial.
• Contrasts Peter’s bold promises with his coming fear and timidity.
• Continues the motif of Jesus walking alone toward the cross.

Mark 13 records Jesus’ final and most extended teaching in the Gospel, delivered privately to four of his disciples (Peter, James, John, and Andrew) on the Mount of Olives, overlooking the temple. It is apocalyptic in tone, echoing Old Testament prophetic texts (especially Daniel) and anticipating both the destruction of Jerusalem and Jesus’ future return. This chapter transitions the narrative from public confrontation to private instruction, preparing the disciples for coming tribulations.

Narrative Function in the Gospel of Mark

Mark 13 serves as both a prophetic warning and a discipleship manual:

• Bridges Jesus’ temple confrontation (ch. 12) and the Passion narrative (chs. 14-15).
• Prepares disciples for trials ahead, including persecution, false teachers, and suffering.
• Reorients hope from the temple destruction to the return of the “Son of Man.”
• Clarifies true readiness as watchful, faithful endurance—not speculative date-setting or fear.

Prediction of the Temple’s Destruction (13:1–2)

As the disciples marvel at the grandeur of the temple, Jesus stuns them by predicting its total destruction—“not one stone will be left on another,” which could be seen as a reversal of Haggai’s rallying cry, “one stone was laid upon another” (Hag. 2:15-19).

• Declares judgment on a corrupt religious system.
• Shifts sacred space from the physical temple to following Jesus and trusting in God.
• Demonstrates that divine presence is no longer tied to a specific location (e.g., the temple).

Narrative Contribution:

• Introduces the central questions of the chapter: When will this be?
• Undermines the Jewish nationalistic and religious security in the temple.

Signs of the Beginning (13:3–13)

Jesus warns of false messiahs, wars, earthquakes, and persecution—but calls these “the beginning of birth pains.” He urges disciples to stay faithful, proclaim the good news, and endure.

• These trials are not signs of the end but just the birthpaings.
• Emphasizes the mission of the church in times of chaos, hardship, and suffering.

Narrative Contribution:

• Establishes the theme of alertness and endurance for Jesus’ disciples.
• Foretells persecution and hardship to be expected.
• Begins Jesus’ private instruction on faithfulness and endurance during uncertain times.

Abomination of Desolation and Tribulation (13:14–23)

Jesus references a defiling event (“abomination of desolation”) in the holy place, urging for people to flee when they see it. These days will be marked by great distress, deception, and danger.

• Draws from Daniel 11:31 to predict a specific historical and spiritual crisis.
• God will shorten the days for the sake of his elect—demonstrating mercy amidst judgment.
• Warnings about deception even among supposed “miracle workers.”

Narrative Contribution:

• Heightens the urgency and danger of the upcoming trials.
• Serves as a dual prophecy—relevant to both 70 A.D. and a future crisis.

The Coming of the Son of Man (13:24–27)

The Son of Man will come “in clouds with great power and glory” to gather his elect.

• Echoes Daniel 7:13-14—Jesus is the exalted ruler of God’s kingdom.
• Provides hope and vindication for the faithful.
• Affirms the certainty of God’s future restoration.

Narrative Contribution:

• Introduces apocalyptic hope amid tribulation.
• Connects Jesus’ current suffering with future exaltation.
• Contrasts the fleeting temple with the eternal kingdom of the “Son of Man.”

The Parable of the Fig Tree (13:28–31)

Jesus uses a parable about fig trees to teach discernment—when you see signs, you know that “it” is near.

• Encourages attentiveness without fear or panic.
• Contrasts temporal things with the enduring word of Christ.

Narrative Contribution:

• Reassures readers that Jesus’ prophecy is trustworthy and enduring.
• Provides some final teachings of Jesus about what awaits his followers.
• Reinforces the truthfulness of Jesus’ words and their enduring power.

The Parable of the Watchman (13:32–37)

Jesus declares that only the Father knows the exact timing of the end of the age—not even the angels or the Son. Therefore, he exhorts his disciples to stay awake, like servants awaiting the master’s return.

• Calls for faithful, alert living until the end rather than speculating about the date when it will occur.
• Emphasizes that discipleship involves active waiting with discipline and readiness.

Narrative Contribution:

• Concludes the Jesus’ discourse with a call to remain vigilant.
• Reinforces the theme of faithful service over curiosity and “needing to know.”
• Sets the tone for the beginning of the Passion narrative where the disciples will face their first test of ‘staying alert” (ch. 14).

Mark 12:1–44 is a dense and powerful chapter that continues Jesus’ final public teachings in Jerusalem during Holy Week, just days before his crucifixion. Each section contributes both to the escalating tension with the religious leaders and to Mark’s overarching themes: the authority of Jesus, the rejection of religious hypocrisy, and the redefinition of true faithfulness to God.

Narrative Function in the Gospel of Mark

Mark 12 acts as a climactic moment in Jesus’ public ministry:

• Conflict reaches its peak with religious authorities.
• Jesus boldly redefines authority, faith, and righteousness.
• The chapter foreshadows the crucifixion, as the leaders’ rejection becomes final.
• It models true discipleship—not through power or prestige, but through humility, sacrifice, and love (as seen in the widow and Jesus himself).

The Parable of the Tenants (12:1–12)

Jesus tells a parable about a vineyard owner (God) who leases the vineyard (Israel) to tenants (religious leaders). When he sends servants (prophets) to collect fruit, they’re beaten or killed. Finally, he sends his son (proleptically Jesus), who is also killed. The owner will destroy the tenants and give the vineyard to others.

Theological Significance:

• A direct prophetic critique of the religious elite.
• Jesus identifies himself as the beloved son who will be rejected and killed.
• Affirms God’s judgment on unfaithful leadership and the inclusion of others (i.e., Gentiles).

Narrative contribution to Mark:

• Reveals Jesus’ awareness of his impending death.
• Connects Jesus with the OT prophetic tradition of announcing judgment upon unfaithful Israel.
• Heightens conflict with the authorities, who understand the parable is about them.

Paying Taxes to Caesar (12:13–17)

Pharisees and Herodians try to trap Jesus by asking if it’s lawful to pay taxes to Caesar. Jesus replies, “Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and to God the things that are God’s.”

Theological Significance:

• Demonstrates Jesus’ wisdom and authority.
• Affirms civic responsibility without compromising allegiance to God.
• Encourages discernment between terrestrial and divine authorities.

Narrative contribution to Mark:

• Shows increasing attempts to discredit Jesus.
• Reinforces Jesus as a teacher who speaks with wisdom and confounds the religious leaders attempts to trap him.
• Echoes the theme that true authority belonging to God, not earthly rulers.

The Sadducees and the Resurrection (12:18–27)

Sadducees (who deny resurrection) pose a hypothetical question about marriage in the kingdom as an attempt to discredit the belief in the resurrection. Jesus responds by affirming the resurrection and correcting their misunderstanding about Scripture and God’s power.

Theological Significance:

• Affirms the truth about resurrection in the kingdom.
• Stresses the way that God is the God of the living, not the dead.
• Critiques scriptural ignorance among the Jewish religious elites.

Narrative contribution to Mark:

• Underscores Jesus’ role as a correct interpreter of Scripture.
• Highlights misunderstanding and corruption among Israel’s leaders.
• Foreshadows Jesus’ own resurrection.

The Greatest Commandment (12:28–34)

A scribe asks Jesus which commandment is greatest. Jesus replies: love God with all your heart and love your neighbor as yourself. The scribe affirms Jesus’ answer.

Theological Significance:

• Centers the entire law on love—vertical (toward God) and horizontal (toward others).
• Shows that some religious leaders are open to truth.
• Emphasizes the heart of God’s covenant with Israel.

Narrative contribution to Mark:

• Presents a rare positive interaction between Jesus and a scribe.
• Clarifies the core ethic of the kingdom of God.
• Reinforces the internal nature of true obedience vs. external religiosity.

Jesus’ Question about David’s Descendant (12:35–37)

Jesus asks how the Messiah can be David’s son if David calls him “Lord” (quoting Psalm 110).

Theological Significance:

• Expands the identity of the Messiah beyond political or nationalistic expectations.
• Implicitly Jesus asserts his authority and status to be greater than David.

Narrative contribution to Mark:

• Challenges popular messianic assumptions.
• Encourages readers to rethink who Jesus truly is.
• Begins to overturn the theme of the “Messianic Secret”—Jesus reveals who he is subtly but unmistakably.

A Warning Against the Scribes (12:38–40)

Jesus denounces scribes for hypocrisy, pride, and exploitation—especially of widows.

Theological Significance:

• Condemns external religiosity without justice or humility.
• Exposes spiritual abuse and corrupt religious systems.

Narrative contribution to Mark:

• Contrasts false piety with true devotion (setting up the next story).
• Increases tension with religious leaders.
• Shows the bankruptcy of religious hypocrisy.

The Widow’s Offering (12:41–44)

Jesus observes people giving in the temple. A poor widow gives two small coins—all she has—while the rich give much out of abundance. Jesus praises her as giving more than all the rest.

Theological Significance:

• Redefines true generosity as sacrificial and sincere.
• Uplifts the marginalized as models of faith.
• Critiques systems that exploit the vulnerable (linking back to the previous warning).

Narrative contribution to Mark:

• Concludes the chapter with a profound example of true discipleship.
• Offers a stark contrast to the behavior of the Jewish religious leaders.
• Anticipates (foreshadows) Jesus’ own sacrificial giving with his life—all that he has.

Mark 11:1–33 is a pivotal chapter in the Gospel of Mark. It begins the final week of Jesus’ life (commonly called Passion Week), shifting the focus from Jesus’ public ministry in Galilee and surrounding areas to his confrontation with Jerusalem’s religious authorities. Here’s a breakdown of the major sections, their theological significance, and how they contribute to Mark’s overall narrative:

Overall Contribution to Mark’s Narrative:

• Narrative Turning Point: Mark 11 begins the Passion narrative. The tone shifts from ministry and miracles to confrontation and fulfillment.
• Conflict and Rejection: Jesus openly confronts religious authorities, marking the beginning of their final rejection of him.
• Messianic Identity Clarified: Jesus defines his messiahship not in political power but in prophetic judgment, humble service, and spiritual renewal.
• Foreshadowing the Cross: This chapter sets the wheels in motion for the final events of Jesus’ life — betrayal, trial, crucifixion.

Mark 11 thus serves as a theological and narrative hinge. It dramatically launches the final act of the Gospel, transitioning from the revelation of who Jesus is to why he must suffer and die.

The Triumphal Entry (11:1–11)

Jesus enters Jerusalem riding on a colt, fulfilling messianic prophecy (Zech 9:9). The crowd welcomes him with shouts of “Hosanna!” and spreads cloaks and branches on the road in front of him.

Theological Significance:

• Messianic Revelation: Jesus publicly declares himself as the Messiah in a symbolic, prophetic act. Until now, he’s often told people to remain silent about his identity (i.e., the “Messianic Secret”).
• Fulfillment of Prophecy: Ties Jesus directly to Old Testament hopes of a coming king who brings peace.
• Contrasting Expectations: The crowd anticipates a political deliverer; Jesus offers a spiritual kingdom.

Narrative contribution in Mark:

• Introduces the tension between Jesus’ mission and popular expectations of people.
• Marks Jesus’ decisive entry into the religious-political center of Israel (Jerusalem), setting the stage for the ensuing conflict.

The Cursing of the Fig Tree (11:12–14)

Jesus curses a fig tree for not bearing fruit, even though it’s not the season for figs. Later, the tree is found withered.

Theological Significance:

• Symbol of Judgment: The fig tree represents Israel, particularly its religious leadership. Despite religious appearances, there’s no spiritual fruit.
• Warning against Hypocrisy: Highlights God’s expectation for authentic righteousness, not just external religiosity.
• Foreshadowing of Temple Judgment: Brackets the cleansing of the temple, indicating they’re linked thematically.

Narrative contribution in Mark:

• Acts as a symbolic prophecy of judgment on Israel.
• Frames the temple cleansing with an enacted parable of fruitlessness and divine rejection.

The Cleansing of the Temple (11:15–19)

Jesus drives out money changers and sellers, condemning the temple as a “den of robbers” instead of a “house of prayer for all nations.”

Theological Significance:

• Judgment on Religious Corruption: Condemns the leadership for exploiting worship for profit and desecrating the temple.
• Inclusive Worship: Restores the temple’s intended purpose as a place for all nations, not just Israel.
• Jesus as Prophetic Reformer: Aligns Jesus with Old Testament prophets who denounced injustice and empty ritual.

Narrative contribution in Mark:

• Provokes the ire of the chief priests and scribes, escalating conflict.
• Reinforces the theme that Jesus is overturning the old system and inaugurating a new way—the kingdom way.

Fig Tree Withered (11:20-26)

In response to the withered fig tree, Jesus teaches about the power of faith, the importance of prayer, and the necessity of forgiveness.

Theological Significance:

• Faith as Access to God’s Power: Encourages bold trust in God.
• Prayer and Forgiveness: Spiritual fruitfulness is linked not to ritual but to relational integrity with God and others.
• Kingdom Ethic: Reveals the new temple reality — prayer and faith-based relationship with God, rather than mechanistic temple rituals.

Narrative contribution in Mark:

• Offers a sharp contrast to the temple leadership’s failure: true righteousness is marked by faith and forgiveness, not position or tradition.
• Points to a new spiritual community centered on trust in God.

Jesus’ Authority Challenged (11:27–33)

Religious leaders challenge Jesus’ authority. Jesus counters with a question about John the Baptist’s authority, exposing their fear and hypocrisy.

Theological Significance:

• Challenge to Institutional Power: Jesus’ authority is not humanly derived but divinely ordained.
• Reveals the Religious Leaders’ Motives: They care more about public opinion than truth or righteousness.
• Jesus as Greater than the Temple Leaders: Undermines the temple hierarchy and foreshadows its collapse.

Narrative Role:

• Opens a series of confrontations that will ultimately lead to Jesus’ arrest.
• Highlights one of the central questions in Mark’s Gospel: “By what authority does Jesus act?”

Teaching on Divorce (10:1–12)

As Jesus travels to Judea, the Pharisees test him by asking, “Is it lawful for a man to divorce his wife?” (v. 2). Jesus responds by pointing them back to creation, saying that God made male and female to become one flesh (vv. 6–8), and what God has joined, no one should separate (v. 9). Privately, he tells the disciples that divorce followed by remarriage is adultery (vv. 11–12).

• Jesus reaffirms God’s original design for marriage as a permanent, covenantal union.
• He elevates the dignity of marriage over cultural practices of easy divorce.
• This passage shows Jesus calling his followers to higher moral standards rooted in creation, not cultural convenience.

Let the Children Come (10:13–16)

People bring children to Jesus, but the disciples rebuke them. Jesus is indignant and says, “Let the children come to me… for to such belongs the kingdom of God” (v. 14). He says whoever doesn’t receive the kingdom like a child will not enter it (v. 15), and he blesses the children.

• Emphasizes child-like trust, humility, and dependence as essential for entering God’s kingdom.
• Contrasts kingdom values with adult notions of status, merit, or presumption.
• Jesus demonstrates the value of the simple and humble heart, again redefining greatness and worth in God’s eyes.

The Rich Young Ruler (10:17–22)

A man asks Jesus what he must do to inherit eternal life (v. 17). Jesus reminds him of the commandments, which he claims to have kept. Jesus tells him that he lacks something: Go and sell all he has, give to the poor, and come follow him (v. 21). The man goes away sorrowful because he has great wealth (v. 22). Jesus remarks how hard it is for the rich to enter God’s kingdom (v. 23), he but adds that “all things are possible with God” (v. 27). He assures the disciples that sacrifices for the kingdom will be rewarded.

• Reveals how wealth (incl. worldly possessions and pursuits) can be a spiritual obstacle when it rivals allegiance to God.
• Challenges self-righteousness and merit-based thinking about entering the kingdom.
• Points to God’s power to do the impossible—even saving the rich and transforming the heart.

Rewards in the Kingdom (10:23-31)

This passage follows the encounter with the rich young ruler (Mark 10:17–22), who walks away sorrowful because he is unwilling to part with his wealth to follow Jesus. Seeing this, Jesus turns to His disciples and says:

• The disciples are astonished. In their cultural context, wealth was often seen as a sign of God’s blessing, so this statement confuses them. Jesus intensifies the point:
• This hyperbolic image emphasizes the human impossibility of entering the kingdom through wealth or self-sufficiency. The disciples ask, “Who then can be saved?” Jesus replies:
• Peter then reminds Jesus that the disciples left everything to follow Him. Jesus responds with a promise:
• He ends with the great reversal of the kingdom: the last are first, and the first are last.

Jesus Predicts His Death and Resurrection: Fourth Time (10:32–34)

As they go up to Jerusalem, Jesus again predicts his death: he will be mocked, flogged, killed, and rise after three days (v. 34). The disciples are amazed and afraid (v. 32).

• The most detailed passion prediction in Mark, showing Jesus’ full awareness and intentional journey to the cross.
• Highlights the voluntary nature of Jesus’ submission to God’s plan for his crucifixion.
•  Reveals the increasing tension as Jesus approaches Jerusalem—obedient unto death for the salvation of others.

The Request of James and John (10:35–45)

James and John ask to sit at Jesus’ right and left in glory (v. 37). Jesus questions whether they can drink his cup and be baptized with his baptism (v. 38). They affirm, and he states that they, indeed, say so, but granting positions of honor is not his to give (v. 40). The other disciples are indignant. Jesus teaches that greatness comes through serving others (v. 43) and that even he came to serve and give his life as a ransom (v. 45).

• Rebukes self-seeking ambition in favor of servant leadership.
• Defines greatness in the kingdom by self-sacrifice and service, not power.
• Verse 45 is a key theological statement on the atoning mission of Jesus—he is the servant who gives his life for others (cf. Isaiah 53).

Jesus Heals Blind Bartimaeus (10:46–52)

As Jesus passes through Jericho, a blind beggar named Bartimaeus cries out, “Jesus, Son of David, have mercy on me!” (v. 47). The crowd tries to silence him, but he cries out all the more. Jesus calls him over and asks, “What do you want me to do for you?” Bartimaeus asks to see again, and Jesus heals him, saying, “Your faith has made you well” (v. 52). He follows Jesus on the way.

• Bartimaeus is the only person in Mark to call Jesus “Son of David,” a messianic title, indicating spiritual insight despite physical blindness.
• His persistence and faith are contrasted with the spiritual blindness of others in the narrative (including what seems to be coming from Jesus’ own disciples).
• He becomes a model disciple, following Jesus immediately after receiving sight. He is the first person to begin following Jesus since Jesus called his first disciples on the shore of the Sea of Galilee.

As Jesus and his disciples travel to the villages of Caesarea Philippi, he asks them, “Who do people say I am?” (v. 27). They answer with names like John the Baptist, Elijah, or a prophet. Jesus then asks, “But who do you say I am?” Peter replies, “You are the Christ” (v. 29). Jesus warns them not to tell anyone about him (v. 30).

• This confession marks a turning point in the Gospel. It is the first explicit identification of Jesus as the Messiah by a disciple.
• The recognition of Jesus as the Messiah (“Christ”) is the centerpiece of Mark’s Gospel narrative
• Jesus’ command for silence (v. 30) reflects the “Messianic Secret,” a recurring theme in Mark that delays public recognition until after the resurrection.

Right after the affirmation of Jesus’ identity as the Messiah (“Christ”), Jesus teaches his disciples plainly that he must suffer, be rejected, killed, and then rise from the dead after three days (v. 31). Peter takes him aside and rebukes him. Jesus responds forcefully: “Get behind me, Satan!” (v. 33), accusing Peter of setting his mind on human concerns rather than God’s.

• Jesus redefines the mission of the Messiah to include suffering, rejection, and death. This was contrary to what the disciples were expecting their long-awaited Jewish Messiah. (i.e., political savior/deliverer vs. suffering servant).

• The word “must” (Greek dei) indicates that Jesus is stipulating this is not optional for him, but an absolute necessity.
• Peter’s rebuke shows the clash between God’s purpose and human misunderstanding—a recurring struggle for the disciples.

Jesus calls the crowd and disciples to deny themselves, take up their cross, and follow him (v. 34). He warns that trying to save one’s life will lead to loss and asks what profit is there in gaining the world but forfeiting one’s own soul (v. 36). He also promises some will not taste death before seeing the kingdom having come with power (9:1).

• Discipleship requires complete allegiance and self-sacrifice.
• Taking up the cross means embracing shame and suffering for Christ’s sake, even to the point of death, if necessary.
• The reference to the kingdom coming “with power” (9:1) may point to the Transfiguration, Resurrection, or Pentecost as a preview of God’s reign (“kingdom”).

Jesus takes Peter, James, and John up a mountain, where he is transfigured—his clothes become dazzling white (v. 3). Moses and Elijah appear, speaking with him. A cloud overshadows them, and a voice says, “This is my beloved Son; listen to him” (v. 7). As they descend, Jesus tells them not to tell anyone until after his resurrection (v. 9).

• The Transfiguration depicts Jesus’ glory, confirming his messianic identity and foreshadowing the glory of his resurrection.
• Moses and Elijah represent the Law and the Prophets, with Jesus as the fulfillment of both.
• The voice from the cloud echoes Mark 1:11, reinforcing divine approval and instruction to heed Jesus above all.

Returning to the crowd, Jesus finds his disciples arguing with scribes. A man brings his demon-possessed son, whom the disciples could not heal. Jesus laments the unbelief of the generation (v. 19). The father cries, “I believe; help my unbelief!” (v. 24). Jesus rebukes the unclean spirit, and the boy is healed. Jesus explains that this kind only comes out by prayer (v. 29).

• Demonstrates the power of faith, even when mingled with some doubt.
• Emphasizes prayerful dependence on God as part of having faith.
• The disciples’ failure serves as a lesson that even they had more to learn and understand from the Master.

Jesus again tells his disciples he will be delivered, killed, and will rise. They do not understand and are afraid to ask.

• The third prediction of suffering and death stresses Jesus’ voluntary submission to suffering.
• “Handed over” suggests betrayal. This is an important point that builds the anticipation of this event.
• The disciples’ fear and silence show their spiritual blindness and emotional resistance to learning more about what Jesus truly means.

Jesus asks the disciples what they were discussing—though he knows they were arguing about who was greatest (v. 34). He tells them that true greatness is found in being the servant of all (v. 35). He takes a child in his arms, saying that welcoming a child is like welcoming Jesus—and even God.

• Kingdom greatness is defined by humility and service, not status.
• The child represents the vulnerable and overlooked.
• True discipleship means welcoming and serving others as Christ himself would.

John reports that someone was casting out demons in Jesus’ name and they tried to stop him. Jesus says not to hinder such a person—anyone doing a mighty work in his name will not soon speak evil of him (v. 39). He promises the certainty of a reward for anyone giving a cup of water to his followers in his name (v. 41).

• Affirms a wider scope of kingdom work—not all who serve Christ are within the inner circle.
• Encourages tolerance, cooperation, and the recognition of God’s work beyond personal boundaries.
• Even small acts of kindness done in Jesus’ name have eternal significance.

Jesus warns that causing “little ones” (i.e., referring to Jesus’ followers) to sin is gravely serious (v. 42). He uses hyperbolic language—cutting off a hand or plucking out an eye—to emphasize the urgency of avoiding sin (vv. 43–48). He closes with cryptic sayings about being salted with fire and having salt among yourselves.

• Warns of the danger of leading others into sin, especially the spiritually weak.
• Urges radical personal holiness—better to suffer loss now than face eternal consequences.
• The salt imagery suggests purity, perseverance, and community peace.

After feeding the 5,000, Jesus sends the disciples ahead by boat while he prays alone. During the night, he walks on the water toward them, calms their fear, and joins them in the boat, astonishing them.

At Gennesaret, people bring the sick to Jesus, believing that even touching his cloak can heal them — and many are healed.

This episode underlines the spread of Jesus’ fame and the popular, almost superstitious, expectations around him. It’s a bridge scene showing how the crowds respond to his power.

God’s healing power works through Jesus, emphasizing his compassion. But it also raises questions about the crowd’s faith — are they seeking God or just the miraculous?

The Pharisees criticize Jesus’ disciples for eating with unwashed hands. Jesus rebukes them for focusing on human traditions while neglecting God’s commands. He teaches that defilement comes from within the heart, not through external things.

Jesus redefines purity, focusing on inner moral corruption rather than ritual observance. This prepares the way for the inclusion of Gentiles and a shift from old covenant practices to the new covenant, heart-centered righteousness.

A Gentile woman begs Jesus to heal her demon-possessed daughter. At first, Jesus seems to refuse, speaking of Israel’s priority. But her persistent faith leads him to heal her child.

This episode challenges traditional Jewish-Gentile boundaries and anticipates the expansion of the good news and the power of God’s kingdom beyond Israel.

Faith, not ethnicity or genealogy, opens the door to God’s blessings. Jesus’ initial refusal tests the woman’s persistence, and her attitude and reply hints at the forthcoming inclusion of believing Gentiles as God’s people too.

In the Decapolis, Jesus heals a man who cannot hear or speak by touching the man and using a single word (“Ephphatha,” meaning “Be opened!”), leading to amazement among the people.

This healing reflects Isaiah’s prophecies (e.g., Isa. 35:5–6) about the coming Messianic Age when the deaf hear and the mute speak. It’s another sign pointing to Jesus’ messianic role and the power of God’s kingdom that is working through him.

Jesus fulfills messianic hopes and prophecies, showing the restorative power of God’s kingdom.

A large crowd gathers, and Jesus, moved with compassion, multiplies seven loaves and a few fish to feed them all, with leftovers.

This second feeding miracle (after the feeding of 5,000) emphasizes Jesus’ care for Gentile crowds (in the Decapolis region). It mirrors God’s provision in the wilderness for Israel during the time of the exodus from Egypt.

Jesus provides abundantly for all people (not just Israelites), foreshadowing the inclusion of Gentiles in God’s plan. It also reinforces Jesus’ identity as the new Moses, providing “bread” for God’s people.

Pharisees demand a sign from heaven to test Jesus. He refuses, sighing deeply at their lack of faith, and then just departs and leaves them.

The Jewish religious leaders demand proof from heaven, but all the while when Jesus is teaching and doing miracles, they are remaining spiritually blind. This reflects the opposition Jesus faces and sets up the growing tension with the religious authorities.

True faith does not come from signs but from humility to perceive what God is doing. Jesus critiques their hardened hearts that demand miracles while ignoring God’s clear work right in front of them.

In the boat, Jesus warns the disciples about the “yeast of the Pharisees and Herod” — their corrupting influence. The disciples misunderstand Jesus; they think he’s talking about bread, revealing their spiritual dullness too.

This scene functions as a metaphorical teaching moment. “Yeast” (or “leaven”) symbolizes the spreading, corrupting influence of unbelief and hypocrisy, which the Pharisees and Herod exemplify.

Thus, Jesus calls his followers to spiritual alertness. Even his own disciples are slow to understand, showing that insight comes not automatically, but by truly listening and seeing what God is doing through Jesus’ teaching and ministry.

In Bethsaida, Jesus heals a blind man in two stages: in the first stage, the man receives partial sight; then in the second stage, full sight.

This is the only two-stage miracle in the Gospels. It acts as a living parable of the disciples’ gradual spiritual understanding. It symbolizes that spiritual vision comes in stages. Just as the man moves from partial to full sight, so the disciples are slowly moving toward recognizing Jesus’ true identity — climaxing in Peter’s confession which follows this episode.

Third in a series of incidents where people question Jesus:

• 1:27 — “What is this? A new teaching—with authority!”
• 2:7 — “Why does this man speak this way? He speaks blasphemy. Who can forgive sins except God alone?”
• 6:2-3 — “Where did this man learn these things? And what is this wisdom that has been given to him? And how are such miracles being done by his hands?”

Jesus is called a “prophet,” and he is rejected like all those before him. Highlighting a biblical theme — a prophet is without honor in his own country. Jesus’ rejection exemplifies how God’s messengers are often resisted not by strangers but by those closest to them. This reinforces the biblical pattern of Israel’s rejection of God’s prophets.

Verse 5 says Jesus “could not do any miracles there, except lay his hands on a few sick people and heal them.” This doesn’t mean Jesus lost power but shows that faith matters in the relationship between God and humans. Mark consistently ties miracles to faith (though not in a mechanical way), and here the town’s unbelief creates a situation where only a few receive healing.

Mark emphasizes the “ordinariness” of Jesus — the townspeople are scandalized that someone they grew up with now claims authority from God and does miracles.

This episode anticipates the broader rejection Jesus will face, especially in Jerusalem, leading to his crucifixion. It reminds readers that even when people see God directly working through Jesus, people can and do reject him.

After this rejection, Jesus expands his mission — in the following verses, he sends out the Twelve. The rejection at Nazareth underscores that the gospel will go beyond familiar or expected audiences, eventually extending to the Gentiles and the ends of the earth.

Jesus gives the apostles authority over unclean spirits, extending his own kingdom mission and power to them. This shows that Jesus’ ministry is not meant to be a one-man operation — it’s delegated and shared. The apostles act as his representatives, preparing them for their future roles after his death and resurrection.

Jesus instructs them to travel light: no bread, no bag, no money — just a staff, sandals, and one tunic. This symbolizes radical trust in God’s provision and dependence on the hospitality of others, reflecting the values of the kingdom rather than worldly security.

The disciples are to stay in one house when they come to a town; they are not to move around seeking better accommodation. This emphasizes their focus and urgency: the message matters more than personal comfort or status. It models a simplicity and singleness of purpose in advancing God’s kingdom.

Their core message is repentance — turning back to God — and they are told to shake the dust off their feet as a testimony against any town that reject them. This act symbolizes judgment because rejecting them means rejecting and rebelling against God’s kingdom.

This passage foreshadows the apostolic mission after Jesus’ resurrection and ascension, when the Twelve and later disciples will go into all the world preaching the gospel, healing, and casting out demons.

Their acts of healing and exorcism are not just signs but participation in God’s restoration of the world — a foretaste of the kingdom breaking into human lives, undoing the damage of sin and evil.

John’s fearless stance against Herod’s unlawful marriage (calling out sin at great risk) models the dangerous, costly road of proclaiming God’s truth — something Jesus’ followers must also be ready for.

Why include the story about John the Baptist:

1. To show the reach of Jesus’ reputation The passage begins by explaining how news about Jesus was spreading even to Herod’s court. Some thought Jesus was John raised from the dead, signaling Jesus’ growing public impact and setting the stage for later political tensions.
2. To explain John’s fate John the Baptist was a major prophetic figure who prepared the way for Jesus (Mark 1:2–8). Readers might naturally wonder: What happened to him? Mark pauses here to explain how and why John was executed under Herod Antipas, filling in a backstory that hadn’t been detailed earlier.
3. To foreshadow Jesus’ own death Mark uses John’s death as a parallel to Jesus’ future suffering:

• Both are righteous, innocent men executed under the pressure of political leaders (Herod for John, Pilate for Jesus).
• John’s martyrdom sets the stage for Jesus’ suffering and the enduring message that following God’s truth can lead to persecution and death.
• Both leaders (Herod and Pilate) are portrayed as conflicted, weak, and swayed by the crowd or by manipulative figures (Herodias for Herod, the chief priests and Jewish crowd for Pilate).

Mark places John’s death here not just as historical reporting but to thematically foreshadow Jesus’ own rejection and crucifixion.

In verse 34, Jesus has compassion on the crowd “because they were like sheep without a shepherd.” This echoes Old Testament imagery (e.g., Ezekiel 34) where God promises to shepherd his scattered people. Jesus is the shepherd that God has sent to care for, feed, and guide his people — a direct fulfillment of God’s shepherding role in the OT.

The miracle shows God’s abundant provision through Jesus. From five loaves and two fish, thousands are fed, with twelve baskets of leftovers — symbolizing not just sufficiency but overflowing abundance. It recalls God providing manna in the wilderness (Exodus 16), linking Jesus to God’s past acts of provision through Moses.

In Jewish expectation, the Messiah’s coming was often imagined as a great banquet (Isaiah 25:6). This feeding points forward to that messianic feast.

This passage shows that the kingdom of God is not just about spiritual teaching but about meeting human needs holistically — body and soul. Jesus’ compassion drives him to heal, teach, and feed, showing the integrated nature of God’s saving work.

Jesus doesn’t just perform the miracle alone — he tells the disciples, “You give them something to eat” (v. 37). This emphasizes the disciples’ role in participating in Jesus’ mission and sharing in his provision, a model for the church’s ministry.

Jesus and his disciples are crossing the Sea of Galilee when a fierce storm arises. The disciples panic, fearing for their lives. Jesus, asleep in the boat, is awakened by them. He rebukes the wind and commands the sea, “Peace! Be still!” Immediately, the storm stops, and a great calm follows.

Theological Significance: This miracle shows Jesus’ authority over nature. It highlights his divinely bestowed power over creation. It also challenges the disciples to have faith rather than fear. Jesus is not just a teacher or prophet — he exercises a unique divine authority from God.

In the region of the Gerasenes near the east side of the Sea of Galilee, Jesus encounters a man possessed by many demons (named “Legion”). The man lives among the tombs and is so strong that he cannot be restrained. Jesus commands the unclean spirits to leave. But they plead with Jesus to be sent into a herd of pigs, which then subsequently rush down into the lake, and they all drown. The man is restored to his right mind and becomes a witness to Jesus and the power of Kingdom in the Decapolis.

Theological Significance: This miracle demonstrates Jesus’ authority over the spiritual realm, especially over demonic forces. It also shows his mission to deliver and restore even the most hopeless individuals. Moreover, the setting of the record (i.e., Gentile territory, graveyards, pigs) highlights the expansion of Jesus’ ministry beyond Jewish boundaries, foreshadowing the later Gentile mission.

Jairus, a synagogue leader, begs Jesus to come and heal his dying daughter. While Jesus is on his way to heal Jairus’ daughter, a woman who has suffered from a bleeding condition for twelve years secretly touches his cloak, believing it will heal her. Immediately, her bleeding stops. Jesus, aware that power has gone out from him, calls out to learn who touched him. The woman confesses, and Jesus commends her faith and tells her she is healed.

Theological Significance: This miracle emphasizes the power of trusting in Jesus and in his kingdom authority. It also depicts how the power of the kingdom is activated by trust. The woman believed that Jesus could bring healing and physical restoration to her body, and it was so! In addition, the woman’s condition also made her ritually unclean under Jewish law, so her touching Jesus and being healed points to Jesus’ ability to cleanse and restore all who come to him, overriding the barriers of old covenant impurity laws for the sake of ministering to people’s need.

While Jesus is delayed by the incident with the woman and the issue of bleeding, Jairus receives news that his daughter has died. Jesus tells him not to fear but believe. And so they continue to Jairus’ home. At the house, Jesus takes the girl by the hand and says, “Talitha koum” (“Little girl, , arise”). And she rises up from the bed immediately, alive and well.

Theological Significance: This miracle demonstrates Jesus’ authority over death itself. It shows that his power extends not just to healing sickness but reversing death. Trust, again, is central to the theme of this story: Jairus is called to believe (i.e., trust) even when all hope seems lost. The raising of Jairus’ daughter from the dead also foreshadows Jesus’ own death and resurrection, which then points forward to the ultimate hope of everlasting life for all those who believe.

A sower sows seed on four types of ground:

• The Path — the seed doesn’t have time to sprout before birds come and eat it
• Rocky Ground — the seed sprouts quickly, but then soon withers
• Thorns — the seed sprouts and grows, but is then choked by surrounding weeds
• Good Ground — the seed grows, flourishes, and produces an abundant crop

Jesus interprets the parable for his disciples. Each type of soil represents a different condition of the human heart and how people respond to hearing the message of the Kingdom.

1. Beside the Path (Hard Ground)

• Represents: People who hear the message, but don’t understand it.
• Outcome: The enemy (Satan) quickly snatches away what was sown before it can take root.

2. On Rocky Ground (Shallow Ground)

• Represents: People who hear the message and receive it with joy, but have no deep root.
• Outcome: Their faith is superficial; when troubles or persecution come because of the message, they quickly fall away.

3. Among Thorns (Weedy Ground)

• Represents: People who hear the message, but the worries of life, the deceitfulness of riches, and desires for other things choke it.
• Outcome: Their faith becomes unfruitful — they don’t grow or produce lasting spiritual results.

4. On Good Soil (Cultivated Ground)

• Represents: People who hear the message, understand it, accept it, and hold on to it with a steadfast heart.
• Outcome: They bear fruit — some thirty, sixty, or even a hundredfold.

Theological Significance:

• People’s hearts vary in receptivity to the message of God’s kingdom.
• Fruitfulness (spiritual growth) depends on the condition of a person’s heart.
• A person’s heart can change by becoming more or less receptive (i.e., fertile)
• External signs of growth don’t necessarily correlate with real, inner spiritual growth.

A lamp is not meant to be hidden under a basket or bed but put on a stand to give light. Jesus adds that hidden things will be revealed, and that how people respond will determine how much more they receive.

Theological Significance:

• God’s message about the kingdom is meant to be revealed, not hidden.
• Faithfulness in responding to God’s revelation leads to receiving even more understanding and blessing.
• Spiritual responsibility: those who hear must respond rightly, or else they will lose even what they have.

A person scatters seed on the ground. The seed grows by itself—the sower doesn’t know how. Eventually, it ripens and is harvested.

Theological Significance:

• The Kingdom of God grows by God’s power, not human effort.
• Spiritual growth is often mysterious and gradual.
• God will bring His work to completion (harvest) in His time.

The mustard seed is tiny when first planted, but then it eventually grows into a large tree-like plant, big enough for birds to build nests in its shade.

Theological Significance:

• The Kingdom of God starts small but grows into something massive and sheltering.
• God’s work often looks insignificant at first but becomes greater than expected.
• Things that may appear insignificant can have very powerful results in God’s plan.

Mark closes the section noting that Jesus spoke many parables like these, as much as people could understand. But he explained everything privately to his disciples.

Jesus used parables both to reveal and conceal truth so as to invite those who desire to seek truth would find deeper understanding, and to hide truth from the hard-hearted and uncaring.

Private instruction for disciples highlights the importance of relational, ongoing learning in Christian growth. It also reveals that for those following Jesus, they gained understanding about the kingdom and God’s plan.

Taken together, these parables show that the Kingdom of God:

• Spreads through speaking/preaching the message of the kingdom
• Receptivity depends on the heart of each individual
• It grows mysteriously and powerfully
• Although it might seem to start out small, it will, in the end, become a vast enterprise
• Require those who hear to truly listen, discern, and then respond accordingly

The news about Jesus keeps spreading: “and a large crowd from Galilee followed him. And people from Judea, and from Jerusalem, and from Idumea, and from beyond the Jordan, and around Tyre and Sidon” (vv. 7-8).

Mark 3:7-8 highlights something profound and often overlooked: the diversity and widespread appeal of Jesus’ ministry early on.

1. Broad Regional Representation
2. Sign of Jesus’ Growing Fame and Influence
3. Foreshadowing the Gospel’s Global Reach
4. Tension with Religious Authorities
5. Cultural and Ethnic Diversity

Jesus and Evil Spirits

The evil spirits fall down before Jesus and cry out, confessing, “You are the Son of God.” The spirits here are conveying the truth about Jesus—the Son of God. The “unclean spirits” know that they are in the presence of a power and authority that is greater than theirs. But they foretell the truth of what Jesus’ companions are trying to figure out.

The ‘Messianic Secret’

Mark’s Secrecy Motif: Jesus commanded the spirits they do not reveal his identity (3:12)

The “Messianic Secret” is a major theme in the Gospel of Mark, where Jesus repeatedly works to conceal his identity as the Messiah and Son of God. It shows up in various ways—especially through Jesus telling people not to reveal who he is after performing healings, miracles, exorcisms, or people’s confession.

Jesus names twelve of his followers as “apostles”:

1. Simon (to whom Jesus gave the name Peter)
2. James (son of Zebedee)
3. John (the brother of James)
4. Andrew
5. Philip
6. Bartholomew
7. Matthew
8. Thomas
9. James (son of Alphaeus)
10. Thaddaeus
11. Simon the Zealot
12. Judas Iscariot (who also betrayed Jesus)

Jesus specifically appoints them to:

• Be “with him”
• Be “sent out to preach”
• Have “authority to cast out demons”

The Meaning of the Twelve

1. Founding of a New Community (Echoing the History of Israel)
2. Discipleship and Relationship
3. Mission and Authority
4. Inclusivity and Imperfection

To address his opponents’ accusation, Jesus offers a refutation and an explanation. He simply doesn’t just say, “You are wrong!” But he shows them why they are wrong. He doesn’t retort with vitriol or anger but simply dismantles their faulty proposition by showing the incongruity in it.

Refutation

Jesus’ rhetorical question “How is the Adversary able to cast out the Adversary?” isn’t meant to raise suspicion as to the mechanism by which it might happen, but rather the purpose of why would it happen in the first place?

“First, he would be sending out his envoys, the demons, to work havoc in the hearts and lives of men, destroying them body and soul, often little by little. Afterward, as it were in base ingratitude and suicidal folly, he would be supplying the very power needed for the shameful defeat and expulsion of his own obedient servants. No kingdom thus divided against itself, can maintain itself.” (William Hendricksen, Mark, 136)

Explanation

After refuting the Pharisees accusation with tact and collectedness in the face of intense opposition, he proceeds to answer their inquiry with a short parable that indirectly alludes to the fact that he has greater power and authority than Satan.

Blasphemy Against The Holy Spirit

In a sobering follow-up, Jesus warns that to claim his work is the work of Satan is to “blaspheme the Holy Spirit,” which is unforgivable. This harsh rebuke seems to be aimed at presenting the seriousness of the religious leaders’ accusations and the gravity of the consequences they would face.

Jesus is essentially pronouncing judgment upon them, and in order to pronounce judgment it means that he has higher authority than they do.

In the ancient culture, the family unit was the basis of all social and civil life. Families would often live near each other, or even share a home, and have everything in common (i.e., share everything).

Israelite culture highly valued the family relationship; it was the very fabric of their community and society. Loyalty to one’s family was paramount to a proper honoring of God and living out the covenant blessings that God had promised. A person was to see their identity as being part of the family, and thus by extension, the community.

“The gospel [good news], and allegiance to Jesus, produce a division, often an unexpected and unwelcome one, in every group or society where they make their way. Mark’s call to his readers then and now is to stick with Jesus whatever the cost.” (N. T. Wright, Mark For Everyone, 30).

In the next session, we will see how Mark strategically uses some of Jesus’ parables to teach about God’s kingdom.

Depicts the radical commitment of the people that Jesus called and they way that they abandoned their occupation to follow him. It vividly portrays the authority and power that Jesus had, and which people apparently recognized.

1. Jesus Casts Out An Unclean Spirit (1:21-28)
2. Jesus Heals Many In Capernaum (1:29-34)
3. Jesus Heals A Man With A Skin Disease (1:35-45)
4. Jesus Heals A Paralyzed Man (2:1-5)

1. Jesus Is Questioned About Forgiving Sins (2:6-12)
2. Jesus Is Questioned About Eating With Sinners (2:13-17)
3. Jesus Is Questioned About Fasting (2:18-22)
4. Jesus Is Questioned About the Sabbath (2:23-28)
5. Jesus Questions And Defies The Pharisees (3:1-6)

Mark 1:14-15 (REV)

After John was arrested, Jesus came into Galilee preaching the good news of God, 15saying, “The time has been fulfilled, and the Kingdom of God has drawn near. Repent and believe the good news.”

Modern understanding of “kingdom” is a fixed, geographical territory ruled by a king, queen, or monarch.

Example: The Roman Empire (show map)

The “kingdom” of God in the Bible is not focused on territorial borders, but on the authority, rule, and reign of God. An associated word that might help get the nuance right is the word “dominion.” The “dominion” of God is less about a place and more about God’s power and authority at work within a certain context or sphere of influence.

·         Realized Eschatology

·         Futurist Eschatology

·         Inaugurated Eschatology

George Ladd defines the “kingdom of God” as:

“…the redemptive reign of God dynamically active to establish his rule among men, and that this Kingdom, which will appear as an apocalyptic act at the end of the age, has already come into human history in the person and mission of Jesus to overcome evil, to deliver men from its power, and to bring them into the blessings of God’s reign. The Kingdom of God involves two great moments: fulfillment within history, and consummation at the end of history.”1 Two-Age View of History

The Present Age

• It’s a time where God’s rule is not fully established, and evil powers are at work bringing pain and suffering in the world.

The Age to Come

• It will involve:

• The restoration of God’s people
• Judgment of the wicked
• Vindication of the righteous
• A transformed or renewed creation

France comments, “The idea is not simply that an allotted time has elapsed (that would have been better expressed by chronos, as in Acts 7:23), but that the decisive moment (kairos) has now arrived.”2

To reiterate more fully, as Ladd eloquently states:

“Exegesis can do justice to this saying only when the Kingdom of God is interpreted in terms of its dynamic meaning: the reign or rule of God. God’s Kingdom, his reign, will come at the end of the age in a mighty irruption into history inaugurating the perfect order of the age to come. But God’s Kingdom, his reign, has already come into history in the person and mission of Jesus. The presence of God’s Kingdom means the dynamic presence of his reign. It means that God is no longer waiting for men to submit to his reign but has taken the initiative and has invaded history in a new and unexpected way. The Kingdom of God is not merely an abstract concept that God is the eternal King and rules over all; it is also a dynamic concept of the acting of God. God’s reign which will come at the end of the age to accomplish God’s redemptive purpose in the world has also come into the midst of human history in the person and mission of Jesus. God the heavenly King, who will act mightily tomorrow is also acting today in Jesus. It is the same God, the same rule, the same Kingdom dynamically at work among men.”3

1. George E. Ladd, The Presence of the Future: The Eschatology of Biblical Realism (2nd ed.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974), 218.
2. R. T. France, Divine Government: God’s Kingship in the Gospel of Mark (London: SPCK, 1990), 91.
3. Ladd, The Presence of the Future, 144.

Mark 1:2-13 (REV)

As it is written in Isaiah the prophet: “Look! I am sending my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare the road for you. 3A voice of one calling out in the desert, ‘Make the road ready for the Lord! Make the paths straight for him!’”

4John came baptizing in the desert and preaching a baptism that was a sign of repentance for the forgiveness of sins. 5And the whole region of Judea and all the people of Jerusalem were going out to him and were being baptized by him in the Jordan River, openly confessing their sins.

6John was clothed with camel’s hair and had a leather belt around his waist, and he ate locusts and wild honey. 7And he was preaching, saying, “After me there is one coming who is mightier than I am—I am not even worthy to stoop down and untie the strap of his sandals! 8I baptized you with water, but he will baptize you with holy spirit.”

The Baptism of Jesus

9And it came to pass in those days that Jesus came from Nazareth of Galilee and was baptized by John in the Jordan. 10And immediately as he was stepping up out of the water, he saw the heavens being split open and the spirit descending upon him like a dove, 11and a voice came out of the heavens, “You are my beloved Son, with you I am well pleased.”

The Temptation in the Desert

12And immediately the spirit drove him out into the desert. 13And he was in the desert 40 days being tempted by the Adversary. And he was with the wild animals, and the angels were ministering to him.

Mark 1:2-13 presents Jesus as the fulfillment of OT prophecy, the Son of God infused with the power of holy spirit, able to resist the temptations of Satan, and worthy to be served by angels.

The Prophecy of Malachi: The Forerunner Who Prepares the Way

Malachi 3:1

“Behold, I send my messenger, and he will prepare the way before me.”

Malachi 4:5–6

“Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the great and awesome day of Yahweh comes. 5And he will turn the hearts of fathers to their children and the hearts of children to their fathers…”

The Prophecy of Isaiah: A Voice in the Wilderness

Isaiah 40:3

“A voice cries: ‘In the wilderness prepare the way of the LORD; make straight in the desert a highway for our God.’”

The spirit descending upon Jesus alludes to the anointing of kings and prophets in the Old Testament, marking Jesus out as God’s chosen one—Messiah.

The “voice from heaven” echoes Psalm 2:7 (“You are my Son”) and Isaiah 42:1 (“my chosen one in whom my soul delights”), tying the beginning of Jesus’ ministry to royal and servant motifs in the Old Testament.

God’s spirit presses Jesus to depart into the wilderness for 40 days, echoing the journey of Israel in the wilderness for 40 years.

Jesus encounters his first antagonist and conflict—temptations by Satan

To help clarify, Lane comments,

“But as soon as it is recognized that the dominant motif of the prologue is the wilderness, Mark’s distinctive reference to the wild beasts becomes intelligible. In the OT blessing is associated with inhabited and cultivated land; the wilderness is the place of the curse. So in the wilderness there is neither seed nor fruit, water nor growth. Man cannot live there. Only frightening and unwanted kinds of animals dwell there. Significantly, when the wilderness is transformed into a paradise no ravenous beast will be in it (Isa. 35:9; Ezek. 34:23-28). Mark’s reference to the wild beasts in Ch. 1:13 serves to stress the character of the wilderness. Jesus confronts the horror, the loneliness and the danger with which the wilderness is fraught when he meets the wild beasts Their affinity in this context is not with paradise, but with the realm of Satan.”1

1. William L. Lane, The Gospel According to Mark, The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974), 61.

Many idiomatic expressions using the term “gospel.”

Take it as gospel

It’s the gospel truth

Preaching the gospel

Spreading the gospel

According to the gospel of [so-and-so] What Does “Gospel” Mean?

The word “gospel” is from the Old English gōdspell

• Gōdspell means a “good spell” (i.e., “good story”)
• The Old English word spell comes from the Proto-Germanic spellan, meaning “to tell.” Spellan then became spellian, and then eventually simply spell

In the New Testament, “gospel” is translated from the Greek word euangelion.

• Euangelion comes from eu- meaning “good” and angelion meaning “message”
• Hence, it conveys the meaning “good message”
• Or more simply…“good news”

1. The death of King Saul by the Philistines (1 Sam 31:9; 2 Sam 4:10)
2. David’s victory and Absalom’s defeat (2 Sam 18:25-27)
3. Solomon crowned king (1 Kgs 1:42)
4. The Arameans abandoning camp after attacking Samaria (2 Kgs 7:9)

The Good News of Isaiah…

• God still reigns and will return and restore the fortunes of Zion (God’s people)
• God will bring “salvation” to His people
• “Salvation” = rescue, deliverance
• This good news is an occasion for happiness and to shout with joy

“It seemed good to the Greeks of Asia, in the opinion of the high priest Apollonius of Menophilus Azanitus: “Since Providence, which has ordered all things and is deeply interested in our life, has set in most perfect order by giving us Augustus, whom she filled with virtue that he might benefit humankind, sending him as a savior, both for us and for our descendants, that he might end war and arrange all things, and since he, Caesar, by his appearance (excelled even our anticipations), surpassing all previous benefactors, and not even leaving to posterity any hope of surpassing what he has done, and since the birthday of the god Augustus was the beginning of the good news [euangelion] for the world that came by reason of him,” which Asia resolved in Smyrna. [Priene 150.40-41, c. 9 B.C.] Good News in Gospel of Mark

Mark 1:1, 14-15

The beginning of the good news of Jesus Christ, the Son of God.

After John was arrested, Jesus came into Galilee preaching the good news of God and saying, “The time has been fulfilled and the kingdom of God has drawn near. Repent and believe the good news.”

“We will say more about both elements of this good news in a little while. But it’s important to emphasize right away that what Paul was talking about was not what most people today imagine. If you mention the Christian good news, most people today imagine that you’re talking about an option you might like to take up if you feel so inclined. A piece of advice. For some, it’s a new kind of spirituality: here is a Jesus-focused interior life for those who want that kind of thing. For others, it’s a new way of living: here is a Jesus-based morality you, or indeed your community, might like to follow. For others again, it’s about taking out an option on your future—a kind of retirement plan, except that the retirement in question takes place after your death rather than before it. It’s a way of making sure that you at least will be safe and sound, even if the rest of the world isn’t. Some people, as we will see, highlight this last element, and when they talk about the good news or the gospel, they focus almost exclusively on this aspect. Some people do the same with the idea of reestablishing our present relationship with God after being cut off through sin. None of these ways of looking at things are, as they stand, totally wrong. The message of Jesus and the message about Jesus do include something about spirituality, something about morality, something about the ultimate future, something not least about our relationship with God. But all these miss the main point. The good news brought by Paul (and before him, by Jesus, though we will come to that presently) was not about an option you might wish to take up. It wasn’t a piece of advice about something you might or might not wish to do. It was news. They claimed it was good news. When Paul told people his good news, he didn’t mean for them to say, “Well, that’s interesting. I’ll see if that’s going to suit me or not.” He wasn’t inviting them to try on a new way of thinking or living that would enable them to live differently or think differently. He was telling them that something had happened which had changed the world, that the world was now a different place, and that he was summoning them to be part of that new, different reality. He was telling them about an event that would cause them to adjust their entire lives in order to come into line with the way things now were.”

~N. T. Wright, Simply Good News, pp. 19-20

That God’s kingdom has arrived, calling people to repentance, faith, and a new way of life under God’s reign.

The Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) form the first four books of the New Testament.

Purposes for the Gospels

• Historical—the need for a faithful and authoritative record of the words and deeds of Jesus.
• Catechetical—the need to instruct converts in the Christian faith.
• Liturgical—the need for worship material in the church.
• Exhortatory—to encourage and assure believers in their faith.
• Theological—the need to settle internal disputes.
• Apologetic—the need to respond to external attacks on the church.
• Evangelistic—the need to call people to faith in Jesus.

With different emphasizes, different portrayals, and different vantage points a historical record deepens and becomes richer and more dynamic.

Why not synthesize into one Gospel?

• Diatessaron (Tatian c. 170 AD)

Matthew

Portrait of Jesus: The King Audience: Primarily Jewish

Mark

Portrait of Jesus: The Servant Audience: Likely Gentile

Luke

Portrait of Jesus: The Savior Audience: Gentile, especially Greek-speaking

John

Portrait of Jesus: The Son of God Audience: Mixed, Jewish and Gentile

Synoptic Gospels

• Gospel of Matthew, Gospel of Mark, Gospel of Luke

“Synoptics” means “to see together”

• Contain overlapping content.
• Share a significant literary connection.
• Have generally the same narrative development.
• Have an episodic narrative structure.

Synoptic Gospel Distinctives

• Jesus’ ministry can fit into a single year time frame.
• Focuses on Jesus as the fulfillment of Jewish messianic prophecy.
• Salvation is described as entrance into the “kingdom of God.”

Gospel of John

• Lots of geographic movement
• Jesus’ ministry seems to extend beyond 1 year
• Jesus’ miracles (“signs”) are a thematic focus
• Development of confrontations with Jewish religious leaders.
• Jesus as the Son of God who reveals the Father.
• Salvation is described as “life in the age to come.”

·       The ‘Gospel’ Genre

• NT Gospels have some resemblance to ancient biographies Bioi (“Lives”)

·       The Gospels Are Historical Literature

·       The Gospels Are Narrative Literature

·       The Gospels Are Theological Literature

Reading “Vertically”

Advantages:

1. The Author’s Intent
2. Clarity of Message
3. Theological Emphasis
4. Literary Features

Disadvantages:

1. The “Full” Picture
2. Differences or Tensions
3. One Dimensional
4. Limited Study

Reading “Horizontally”

Advantages:

1. Complete Picture
2. Clarifying Details
3. Author Emphases
4. Diversity

Disadvantages:

1. Narrative Blending
2. Over Harmonization
3. Gospel Flattening
4. Complex and Time-Consuming

Reading the Gospels as Theological Narrative

“Theological narrative” tells a story and conveys an important point with it.

• Narrator
• Setting
• Characters
• Plot
  • Sequence (Causation)
  • Drama (Conflict/Struggle)
  • Climax (Resolution)

Major Issues in 1 Corinthians

1. Factions (1:10-11)
2. Approving sexual immorality (5:1, 11)
3. Lawsuits between Christians (6:1-2)
4. Sexual Licentiousness (6:12, 18)
5. Christian marriage and singleness (7:1, 10-11)
6. Food sacrificed to idols (8:1; 10:19-20)
7. Gender distinctions in worship (11:4-5)
8. Schisms at communion (11:17, 33-34)
9. Selfish spirit manifestations (12:1; 14:12)
10. Some disbelieved in the resurrection (15:12-13)
11. Collection of their offerings (16:1-2)

In addition to these eleven issues, we spent time considering how Christianity compared to ancient philosophical schools, how to translate 1 Corinthian 6:9 with reference to homosexual practices, Christology with a focus on 1 Corinthians 8:6, and good deal of time focused on divine speech in the pagan world and in the church.

After Paul Left Corinth1

• 51 ad  Paul’s first visit to Corinth (Acts 18:1-21)
• 54 ad Paul wrote 1 Corinthians.
• 54 ad Paul’s second visit to Corinth (2 Cor 2:1; 10:10; 11:4-8; 13-15; 13:2)
• 54 ad Paul wrote a severe letter (2 Cor 2:4; 7:8) and sent Titus to Corinth.
• 55 ad After hearing back from Titus (2 Cor 2:13; 7:5; Acts 20:1), Paul wrote 2 Corinthians.
• 56 ad Paul’s third visit to Corinth, spending three months (Acts 20:2)
• 56 ad While in Corinth, he wrote Romans, after which, he left never to return.

Clement’s Letter to the Corinthians

• In 96 ad, forty years later, we hear again about the church at Corinth. Clement, a pastor of the church at Rome, sent a letter to the Corinthians.
• Clement went on and on about the Corinthians’ fine reputation: “1:2 For has anyone ever visited you who did not approve your most excellent and steadfast faith? Who did not admire your sober and magnanimous piety in Christ? Who did not proclaim the magnificent character of your hospitality? Who did not congratulate you on your complete and sound knowledge? 3 For you did everything without partiality, and you lived in accordance with the laws of God, submitting yourselves to your leaders and giving to the older men among you the honor due them. You instructed the young people to think temperate and proper thoughts; you charged the women to perform all their duties with a blameless, reverent, and pure conscience, cherishing their own husbands, as is right; and you taught them to abide by the rule of obedience, and to manage the affairs of their household with dignity and all discretion. 2:1 Moreover, you were all humble and free from arrogance, submitting rather than demanding submission, more glad to give than to receive, and content with the provisions that God supplies. And giving heed to his words, you stored them up diligently in your hearts, and kept his sufferings before your eyes. 2 Thus a profound and rich peace was given to all, together with an insatiable desire to do good, and an abundant outpouring of the Holy Spirit fell upon everyone as well. 3 Being full of holy counsel, with excellent zeal and a devout confidence you stretched out your hands to almighty God, imploring him to be merciful if you had inadvertently committed any sin. 4 You struggled day and night on behalf of all the family of believers, that through fear and conscientiousness the number of his elect might be saved. 5 You were sincere and innocent and free from malice one toward another. 6 Every faction and every schism was abominable to you. You mourned for the transgressions of your neighbors: you considered their shortcomings to be your own. 7 You never once regretted doing good, but were ready for every good work. 8 Being adorned with a virtuous and honorable manner of life, you performed all your duties in the fear of him. The commandments and the ordinances of the Lord were written on the tablets of your hearts.”2 (1 Clement 1:2-2:8)
• Something bad had happened, which greatly concerned Clement “1 All glory and growth were given to you, and then that which is written was fulfilled: “My beloved ate and drank and was enlarged and grew fat and kicked.” 2 From this came jealousy and envy, strife and sedition, persecution and anarchy, war and captivity. 3 So people were stirred up: those without honor against the honored, those of no repute against the highly reputed, the foolish against the wise, the young against the old.” (1 Clement 3.1-3)
• Factions had reemerged, organized by age. “44:6 For we see that you have removed certain people, their good conduct notwithstanding, from the ministry that had been held in honor by them blamelessly. …46:5 Why is there strife and angry outbursts and dissension and schisms and conflict among you? 6 Do we not have one God and one Christ and one spirit of grace that was poured out upon us? And is there not one calling in Christ? 7 Why do we tear and rip apart the members of Christ, and rebel against our own body, and reach such a level of insanity that we forget that we are members of one another? Remember the words of Jesus our Lord, 8 for he said: “Woe to that person! Rather than cause one of my elect to sin, it would have been good for that one not to have been born. It would have been better for that person to have been tied to a millstone and cast into the sea, rather than pervert one of my elect.” 9 Your schism has perverted many; it has brought many to despair, plunged many into doubt, and caused all of us to sorrow. And yet your rebellion still continues!” (1 Clement 44:6; 46:5-9)
• Clement wrote to the Corinthians to confront them. “The church of God that sojourns in Rome to the church of God that sojourns in Corinth, to those who are called and sanctified by the will of God through our Lord Jesus Christ: May grace and peace from almighty God through Jesus Christ be yours in abundance. 1 Because of the sudden and repeated misfortunes and reverses that have happened to us, brothers, we acknowledge that we have been somewhat slow in giving attention to the matters in dispute among you, dear friends, especially the detestable and unholy schism, so alien and strange to those chosen by God, which a few reckless and arrogant persons have kindled to such a pitch of insanity that your good name, once so renowned and loved by all, has been greatly reviled.” (1 Clement 1.1)
• He appealed to them for love and unity. “1 You see, dear friends, how great and wonderful love is; its perfection is beyond description. 2 Who is worthy to be found in it, except those whom God considers worthy? Let us therefore ask and petition his mercy, so that we may be found blameless in love, standing apart from any human factiousness.” (1 Clement 50:1-2)
• He asked them to restore their old leaders. “1 You, therefore, who laid the foundation of the revolt must submit to the presbyters and accept discipline leading to repentance, bending the knees of your heart. 2 Learn how to subordinate yourselves, laying aside the arrogant and proud stubbornness of your tongue. For it is better for you to be found small but included in the flock of Christ than to have a preeminent reputation and yet be excluded from his hope.” (1 Clement 57:1-2)

Dionysius, Overseer of Corinth

• Approximately 170 ad, about 75 years later, we hear again about the church at Corinth and their overseer, Dionysius.
• Jerome: “Dionysius, bishop of the church of Corinth, was of so great eloquence and industry that he taught not only the people of his own city and province but also those of other provinces and cities by his letters. Of these one is To the Lacedaemonians, another To the Athenians, a third To the Nicomedians, a fourth To the Cretans, a fifth To the church at Amastrina and to the other churches of Pontus, a sixth To the Gnosians and to Pinytus bishop of the same city, a seventh To the Romans, addressed to Soter their bishop, an eighth To Chrysophora a holy woman. He flourished in the reign of Marcus Antoninus Verus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus.”3 (Jerome, Lives of Illustrious Men 27)
• Eusebius the historian quoted Dionysius’s letter to Soter, the overseer at Rome: “Today we celebrated the holy day of the Lord, during which we read your letter, which we will always read for admonishment, as we do the letter sent to us before by Clement.”4 (Eusebius, Church History 23)
• We learn from these sources that Corinth was doing well. They had good relations with many churches and were playing a leading role. They had preserved Clement’s letter and read it regularly as a warning.

Application

• When it comes to applying the lessons of 1 Corinthians to our situation today, the following saying comes to mind: “Only a fool learns from his own mistakes. The wise man learns from the mistakes of others.”
• Dozens of generations of Christians have benefited immensely from these powerful epistles.
• We learn much about the importance of unity, the superiority of spiritual Christianity over human wisdom, the need to recognize boundaries between saints and the world, the need for holy living, especially sexually, the necessity of consideration for a weaker brother or sister, solidarity with and elevation of those who have lower status in Christ’s body, the need for love in the assembly, how indispensable it is for us to evaluate our contributions based on whether or not they build up others in our weekly meeting, and the essentiality of belief in our future resurrection at the coming of Christ.
• Challenge: read all of 1 Corinthians in as few sittings as possible.

Bibliography

The Apostolic Fathers: Greek Texts and English Translations. Edited by Michael W. Holmes. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003.

Eusebius. The History of the Church. Translated by Jeremy M. Schott. Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2019.

Jerome. “On the Lives of Illustrious Men.” In Theodoret, Jerome, Gennadius & Rufinus: Historical Writings. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Vol. 203. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series. New York, NY: Christian Literature Publishing, 1890.

Murphy-O’Connor, Jerome. St. Paul’s Corinth: Texts and Archeology. 3rd ed. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 2002.

1. For this chronology I’m indebted to Jerome Murphy-O’Connor, St. Paul’s Corinth: Texts and Archeology, 3rd ed. (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 2002), 173-74.
2. The Apostolic Fathers: Greek Texts and English Translations, ed. Michael W. Holmes (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003).
3. Jerome, “On the Lives of Illustrious Men,” in Theodoret, Jerome, Gennadius & Rufinus: Historical Writings, ed. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, vol. 203, Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series (New York, NY: Christian Literature Publishing, 1890).
4. Eusebius, The History of the Church, trans. Jeremy M. Schott (Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2019), 210.

1 Corinthians 1:7-8; 3:12-13; 4:5; 5:5; 6:2-3, 9-10, 14; 11:26; 15:3-8, 12-14, 20-28, 35, 58; 16:22

Eschatology: belief about the last things or end times.

• 1 Cor 1:7-8 There is an end: the Day of our Lord Jesus Christ
• 1 Cor 3:12-13  The day of judgment and reward
• 1 Cor 4:5 When the Lord comes, the truth will come out.
• 1 Cor 5:5 Salvation will be complete on the Day of the Lord.
• 1 Cor 6:2-3 The saints will judge the world and angels.
• 1 Cor 6:9-10 Sin can keep us out of God’s Kingdom.
• 1 Cor 6:14  As He raised the Lord, God will raise us by His power.
• 1 Cor 11:26 Communion memorializes the Lord’s death until he comes.
• 1 Cor 16:22 Maranatha: Our Lord, come!

The Corinthian Christians struggled to accept Paul’s teaching about resurrection (1 Cor 15:12, 35).

Afterlife Option 1: Non-Existence

• “I, Nicomedes, am happy. I was not, and I became, I am not, and nothing hurts me.”1 (Epigrammata Graeca 595)
• “I was not and I came to be; I am not; I don’t care”2 (Inscriptiones Graecae2190)
• “I was not, I was, I remember, I am not, I do not care.”2 (Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum530)
• “I was not, I was, I am not, I don’t desire (to be)”2 (Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum3463)
• “I believed in overdoing nothing. I came and went away blameless. I observed everything human, but did not pry into what is forbidden, or seek to know whether I existed before or whether I ever shall again.”2 (Epigrammata Graeca 615)

Afterlife Option 2: Ascending to Heaven or Joining the Stars

• Ascended among the blessed: “The good and discreet Aelianus was given this tomb by his father in concern for his mortal body; but his heart, which is immortal, has leapt up among the blessed; for the soul lives forever, it is what gives life, and it has come down from God. Stay your tears, my father, and you, mother, stay my brothers from weeping. The body is the soul’s tunic: but you must respect the god in me.”3 (Epigrammata Graeca 651)
• Ascension: “The precinct of heavenly Zeus keeps me, whom Apollo…changed; for he took me immortal from the fire.”4 (Inscriptiones Graecae1.142.3-4)
• Ascension not Hades: “Cease to lament the will of the gods, lest piety, ignorant that I have been received into the heavenly abode, grieve and offend the divine powers with sorrow. I will not sadly pass into the gloomy waves of Tartarus, nor will I be ferried across the waters of Acheron as a shadow, nor will I strike a dark-colored boat with an oar, nor will I fear you, Charon, with your terrible gaze. Nor will aged Minos pass judgment on me, nor will I wander through dark places or be confined by waters. Rise, and tell my mother, so that she may not weep for me night and day, like the grieving Attic mother for Itys. For holy Venus has ordered that I not know the halls of silence, but has lifted me to the bright temples of the heavens.”5 (Carmina Latina Epigraphica 16-28)
• In the 7th circle: “Stand before the tomb and behold young Choro, unwedded daughter of Diognetus. Hades has set her in the seventh circle.”6 (Abhandlungen der Akademie 46)
• Went to the stars: “As she approached the altar and was paying her vows, she went, respected by all, to the stars. Thus without enduring sickness she joined the demigods.”3 (Inscriptiones Graecae2.472.12-13)
• Become an evening star: “Mother, do not weep for me. What is the use? You ought rather to reverence me, for I have become an evening star, among the gods.”7 (Inscriptiones Graecae 7.123.5-6)

Afterlife Option 3: Pluto (Hades) Myth

• Homer described the dead: “[T]he ghost of stricken Patroclus drifted up. . .He was like the man to the life, every feature, the same tall build and the fine eyes and voice and the very robes that used to clothe his body. Hovering at his head the phantom rose and spoke: “Sleeping, Achilles? You’ve forgotten me, my friend. You never neglected me in life, only now in death. Bury me, quickly—let me pass the Gates of Hades. They hold me off at a distance, all the souls, the shades of the burn-out, breathless dead, never to let me cross the river, mingle with them. . .They leave me to wander up and down, abandoned, lost at the House of Death with the all-embracing gates. Oh give me your hand—I beg you with my tears! Never, never again shall I return from Hades once you have give me the soothing rites of fire.” …In the same breath he stretched his loving arms but could not seize him, no, the ghost slipped underground like a wisp of smoke . . .with a high thin cry. And Achilles sprang up with a start and staring wide, drove his fists together and cried in desolation, “Ah god! So even in Death’s strong house there is something left, a ghost, a phantom—true, but no real breath of life.”8 (Homer, Iliad 76-91, 117-123)
• Lucian of Samosata explained the Hades myth: “The general herd, whom philosophers call the laity, trust Homer and Hesiod and the other mythmakers in these matters, and take their poetry for a law unto themselves. So they suppose that there is a place deep under the earth called Hades, which is large and roomy and murky and sunless; I don’t know how they imagine it to be lighted up so that everything in it can be seen. The king of the abyss is a brother of Zeus named Pluto…He himself has been allotted the sovereignty of the dead, whom he receives, takes in charge, and retains in close custody, permitting nobody whatsoever to go back up above, except, in all time, a very few for most important reasons. His country is surrounded by great rivers, fearful even in name; for they are called “Wailing,” “Burning Fire,” and the like. But the principal feature is Lake Acheron, which lies in front and first receives visitors; it cannot be crossed or passed without the ferryman…[B]y the descent and the portal…stands the king’s nephew, Aeacus, who is commander of the guard; and beside him is a three-headed dog, very long-fanged, who gives a friendly, peaceable glance to those who come in, but howls at those who try to run away and frightens them with his great mouth. After passing the lake on going in, one comes next to a great meadow overgrown with asphodel, and to a spring that is inimical to memory; in fact, they call it “Oblivion” for that reason. …Pluto and Persephone, as these people said, are the rulers and…receive the good, just men who have lived virtuously, and when many have been collected, send them off, as if to a colony, to the Elysian Fields to take part in the best life. But if they come upon any rascals, turning them over to the Furies, they send them to the Place of the Wicked, to be punished in proportion to their wickedness. There—ah! what punishment do they not undergo? They are racked, burned, devoured by vultures, turned upon a wheel; they roll stones uphill; and as for Tantalus, he stands on the very brink of the lake with a parched throat, like to die, poor fellow, for thirst! But those of the middle way in life, and they are many, wander about in the meadow without their bodies, in the form of shadows that vanish like smoke in your fingers. They get their nourishment, naturally, from the libations that are poured in our world and the burnt-offerings at the tomb; so that if anyone has not left a friend or kinsman behind him on earth, he goes about his business there as an unfed corpse, in a state of famine. So thoroughly are people taken in by all this that when one of the family dies, immediately they bring an obol and put it in his mouth, to pay the ferryman for setting him over.”9 (Lucian of Samosata, On Funerals 2-10)
• Gone to Hades: “I have gone to the ghastly city of Hades”10 (Epigrammata Graeca4)
• Gone to Tartarus: “Hermes, messenger of Persephone, why do you send him before us to Hades’ Tartarus, where there is no laughter?”10 (Epigrammata Graeca1-2)
• Gone to Elysium: “The tomb keeps only the name of Micca; her soul is with the pious, it is among the Elysian fields.”11 (Epigrammata Graeca 1-2)
• Gone to Elysian fields: “You did not die, Prōtē, but moved to a better place, and you dwell in the blessed islands, far from all evils, rejoicing in the flowers of the Elysian fields. No winter afflicts you, nor heat, nor disease troubles you, neither thirst nor hunger touches you, but you no longer even long for the life of men. For you live without reproach in the pure rays of Olympus, truly close by. P. Aelius Abascanthus, father of Ailia Prōtē. She lived for 7 years, 11 months, and 27 days.” (Inscriptionem Graecae 1973)

Afterlife Option 4: Reincarnation

• Myth of Er from Plato: “He [Er] said that when his soul departed, it made a journey in the company of many, and they came to a certain demonic place, where there were two openings in the earth next to one another, and, again, two in the heaven, above and opposite the others. Between them sat judges who, when they had passed judgment, told the just to continue their journey to the right and upward, through the heaven; and they attached signs of the judgments in front of them. The unjust they told to continue their journey to the left and down, and they had behind them signs of everything they had done. …As to the other two openings, souls out of the earth, full of dirt and dust, came up from one of them; and down from the other came other souls, pure from heaven. And the souls that were ever arriving looked as though they had come from a long journey: and they went away with delight to the meadow…And they told their stories to one another, the ones lamenting and crying, remembering how much and what sort of things they had suffered and seen in the journey under the earth—the journey lasts a thousand years—and those from heaven, in their turn, told of the inconceivable beauty of the experiences and the sights there. …When we were near the mouth about to go up and had suffered everything else, we suddenly saw…tyrants, but there were also some private men, of those who had committed great faults. They supposed they were ready to go up, but the mouth did not admit them; it roared when one of those whose badness is incurable or who had not paid a sufficient penalty attempted to go up. There were men at that place…who took hold of some and led them away…threw them down and stripped off their skin. They dragged them along the wayside, carding them like wool on thorns…these men would be led away and thrown into Tararus. … When each group had spent seven days in the plain, on the eighth they were made to depart from there and continue their journey. In four days they arrived at a place from which they could see a straight light, like a column, stretched from above through all of heaven and earth, most of all resembling the rainbow but brighter and purer. …for this light is that which binds heaven, like the undergirders of triremes, thus holding the entire revolution together. From the extremities stretched the spindle of Necessity, by which all the revolutions are turned. …Now when they arrived…[a] certain spokesman first marsalled them at regular distances from each other; then, he took lots…Let him who gets the first lot make the first choice of a life to which he will be bound by necessity. …When he had said this, he cast the lots among them all, and each picked up the one that fell next to him…After this, in turn, he set the patterns of the lives on the ground before them; there were far more than there were souls present. There were all sorts; lives of all animals, and, in particular, all the varieties of human lives. … For the most part the choice was made according to the habituation of their former life. He said he saw a soul that once belonged to Orpheus choosing a life of a swan, out of hatred for womankind; due to his death at their hands, he wasn’t willing to be born, generated in a woman. He saw Thamyras’ soul choosing the life of a nightingale. And he also saw a swan changing to the choice of a human life; other musical animals did the same thing. The soul that got the twentieth lot chose the life of a lion; …And after him was the soul of Agamemnon; it too hated humankind as a result of its sufferings and therefore changed to the life of an eagle. …And by chance Odysseus’ soul had drawn the last lot of all and went to choose; from memory of its former labors it had recovered from love of honor; it went around for a long time looking for the life of a private man who minds his own business; and with effort it found one lying somewhere, neglected by the others. …When all the souls had chosen lives, in the same order as the lots they had drawn they went forward…all made their way through terrible stifling heat to the plain of Lethe. …Now it was a necessity for all to drink a certain measure of water, but those who were not saved by prudence drank more than the measure. As he drank, each forgot everything. And when they had gone to sleep and it was midnight, there came thunder and an earthquake; and they were suddenly carried from there, each in a different way, up to their birth, shooting like stars.”12 (Plato, The Republic614b-620d)
• Bernabe and Cristobal on Orphic golden tablets: “[I]n the scheme described in the tablets, the soul, which is active, finds itself faced by a test it must overcome. This is the behavior demanded from the soul in the moment of its transition to the other world: that it should not take the wrong path. Everything depends on it, and on the fact that it remembers what it must do…If it does what it should do, it will be successful. If it makes a mistake, it will be reincarnated.”13

The Resurrection of Christ

• Paul leaned on received tradition, eyewitnesses, and personal experience to establish certainty about Christ’s resurrection (1 Cor 15:3-8).
• In Greek mythology, there were several accounts of returning to life.
• Aeschylus (458 bc) has Apollo say: “Fetters he can undo: there is a cure for that affliction, and many a device for getting him released. But when once a man has died, and the dust has sucked up his blood, there is no rising again.”14 (Aeschylus, Eumenides 645-648)
• Pausanias relates a standard myth that Asclepius raised the dead: “Presently it was reported over every land and sea that Asclepius was discovering everything he wished to heal the sick, and that he was raising dead men to life.”15 (Pausanias, Description of Greece26.6)
• Diodorus explains how Asclepius brought people back to life: “And so far did he advance along the road of fame that, to the amazement of all, he healed many sick whose lives had been despaired of, and for this reason it was believed that he had brought back to life many who had died. Consequently, the myth goes on to say, Hades brough accusation against Asclepius, charging him before Zeus of acting to the detriment of his own province, for, he said, the number of the dead was steadily diminishing, now that men were being healed by Asclepius.”16 (Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History 71.2-3)
• Orpheus Myth from Virgil: “And now, as he [Orpheus] retraced his steps, he had avoided all mischance, and the regained Eurydice was nearing the upper world, following behind—for that condition had Proserpine [Persephone] imposed—when a sudden frenzy seized Orpheus, unwary in his love…He halted, and on the very verge of light, unmindful, alas, and vanquished in purpose, on Eurydice, now regained looked back! In that instant all his toil was spilt like water…She cried: ‘What madness, Orpheus, what dreadful madness has brought disaster alike upon you and me, poor soul? …And now farewell! I am borne away, covered in night’s vast pall.…’ She spoke, and straightway from his sight, like smoke mingling with thin air, vanished afar and saw him not again, as he vainly clutched at the shadows with so much left unsaid.…”17 (Virgil, Georgics 453-527) (see also Ovid, Metamorphoses 10.1-85)
• Euripides’s Myth of Alcestis: “Adetus’s wife Alcestis died and he grieved for her. Heracles: “I must save the woman who has just died and show my gratitude to Admetus by restoring Alcestic once more to this house. I shall go and look out for the black-robed lord of the dead, Death (Θάνατον) himself, and I think I shall find him drinking from the offerings near the tomb. And if once I rush from ambush and catch him in my side-crushing grip, no one shall take him from me until he releases the woman to me. But if I fail to catch this quarry and he does not come to the blood offering, I shall go down to the sunless house of Persephone and her lord in the world below and shall ask for Alcestis, and I think I shall bring her up and put her in the hands of my friend. He welcomed me into his house and did not drive me away, thought he had suffered grievous misfortune. In his nobility he concealed it, out of respect for me.”18 (Euripides, Alcestis 840-858)
• 1 Cor 15:12-14  Paul linked together belief in our future resurrection with Christ’s resurrection.
• Dale Martin: “Thus the idea of the resurrection of the body would indeed have struck some Greeks as ridiculous or incomprehensible. Specifically, the notion would have offended the educated-those exposed, at least minimally, to philosophical arguments and assumptions. Of course, due to the uniformity of higher education in the Greco-Roman world, all people so educated could be expected to hold similar views, at least on basic points, regardless of which philosophical school commanded their allegiance or lack thereof. And in the early Roman Empire one of those basic points was that, whatever one believed about life after death, promises of resurrected bodies were not to be given any credence. Such gullibility was reserved for the uneducated—that is, the vast majority of the inhabitants of the Empire.”19
• Dale Martin: “The Strong, influenced by popular philosophy to deprecate the body, opposed the idea of a resurrected body. Indeed, they heard Paul’s language about “resurrection of the dead” (nekros) as referring to the resuscitation of a “corpse,” the normal meaning of the term nekros, and they found such a view philosophically ridiculous.”20

Paul’s Mini-Apocalypse (1 Cor 15:20-28)

• Christ returns (the day of our Lord Jesus).
• Christ raises the faithful from the dead.
• Christ reigns until he puts all his enemies under his feet.
• Finally, he hands over the Kingdom to God.

Application

• Because of resurrection, the Corinthians should be steadfast and excel in the work of the Lord (1 Cor 15:58).
• The resurrection of the body means that our work is not in vain.

Bibliography

Aeschylus. Agamenmnon, Libation-Bearers, Eumenides. Translated by Alan H. Sommerstein. Vol. 2. Loeb Classical Library, edited by Jeffrey Henderson. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008.

Cristóbal, Alberto Bernabé and Ana Isabel Jiménez San. Instruction for the Netherworld: The Orphic Gold Tablets. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World, edited by D. Frankfurter H. S. Versnel, and J. Hahn, vol. 162. Ledien: Brill, 2008.

Euripides. Cyclops, Alcestis, Medea. Translated by David Kovacs. Vol. 1. Loeb Classical Library, edited by Jeffrey Henderson. Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 2001.

Homer. The Iliad. Translated by Robert Fagles. Penguin Classica. New York, NY: Penguin Books, 1998.

Lattimore, Richmond. Themes in Greek and Latin Epitaphs. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1962.

Lucian. Anacharsis, Menippus, on Funerals, a Professor of Public Speaking, Alexander the False Prophet, Essays in Portraiture, Essays in Portraiture Defended, the Goddesse of Surrye. Translated by A. M. Harmon. Vol. 4. Loeb Classical Library, edited by T. E. Page. London, England: William Heinemann, 1925.

Martin, Dale B. The Corinthian Body. New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1995.

Pausanias. Description of Greece. Translated by W. H. S. Jones. Vol. 1. Loeb Classical Library. London, England: William Heinemann, 1918.

Plato. The Republic of Plato. Translated by Allan Bloom. New York, NY: Basic Books, 2016.

Sicily, Diodorus of. The Library of History Iv.59-Viii. Translated by C. H. Oldfather. Vol. 3. Loeb Classical Library, edited by G. P. Goold. London, England: William Heinemann, 1939.

Virgil. Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid 1-6. Translated by H. Rushton Fairclough. Vol. 1. Loeb Classical Library, edited by Jeffrey Henderson. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004.

Wiegand, Theodor. “Sechster Vorläufiger Bericht Über Die Von Den Königlichen Museen in Milet Und Diyma Unternommenen Ausgrabungen.” In Abhandlungen Der Königlichen Preussischen Akademie Der Wissenschaften. Edited by Georg Reimer. Philosophisch-Historische Classe. Berlin: Verlag der Königlichen Akademie dier Wissenschaften, 1908.

1. Richmond Lattimore, Themes in Greek and Latin Epitaphs (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1962), 84.
2. Lattimore, 84.
3. Lattimore, 34.
4. Lattimore, 50.
5. Lattimore, 39-40. Translation from ChatGPT.
6. Lattimore, 34. Theodor Wiegand, “Sechster Vorläufiger Bericht Über Die Von Den Königlichen Museen in Milet Und Diyma Unternommenen Ausgrabungen,” in Abhandlungen Der Königlichen Preussischen Akademie Der Wissenschaften, ed. Georg Reimer, Philosophisch-Historische Classe (Berlin: Verlag der Königlichen Akademie dier Wissenschaften, 1908), 46. Available at https://archive.org/details/abhandlungenderk1908akaduoft/page/n509/mode/2up?view=theater.
7. Lattimore, 35.
8. Homer, The Iliad, trans. Robert Fagles, Penguin Classica (New York, NY: Penguin Books, 1998), 561-62.
9. Lucian, Anacharsis, Menippus, on Funerals, a Professor of Public Speaking, Alexander the False Prophet, Essays in Portraiture, Essays in Portraiture Defended, the Goddesse of Surrye, trans. A. M. Harmon, vol. 4, Loeb Classical Library, ed. T. E. Page (London, England: William Heinemann, 1925), 113-19.
10. Lattimore, 87.
11. Lattimore, 36.
12. Plato, The Republic of Plato, trans. Allan Bloom (New York, NY: Basic Books, 2016), 297-303.
13. Alberto Bernabé and Ana Isabel Jiménez San Cristóbal, Instruction for the Netherworld: The Orphic Gold Tablets, Religions in the Graeco-Roman World, ed. D. Frankfurter H. S. Versnel, and J. Hahn, vol. 162 (Ledien: Brill, 2008), 54.
14. Aeschylus, Agamenmnon, Libation-Bearers, Eumenides, trans. Alan H. Sommerstein, vol. 2, Loeb Classical Library, ed. Jeffrey Henderson (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 437.
15. Pausanias, Description of Greece, trans. W. H. S. Jones, vol. 1, Loeb Classical Library (London, England: William Heinemann, 1918), 387.
16. Diodorus of Sicily, The Library of History Iv.59-Viii, trans. C. H. Oldfather, vol. 3, Loeb Classical Library, ed. G. P. Goold (London, England: William Heinemann, 1939), 43.
17. Virgil, Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid 1-6, trans. H. Rushton Fairclough, vol. 1, Loeb Classical Library, ed. Jeffrey Henderson (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 253-55.
18. Euripides, Cyclops, Alcestis, Medea, trans. David Kovacs, vol. 1, Loeb Classical Library, ed. Jeffrey Henderson (Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 2001), 239-41.
19. Dale B. Martin, The Corinthian Body (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1995), 114.
20. Martin, 107-08.

1 Corinthians 12:12-29; 13:1-13; 14:1-40

The Body Analogy

• 1 Corinthians 12:12-14 The Christians in Corinth should think of themselves as one unity body.
• Discord is like a festering disease in the body: “[I]f one were to run through the entire list of citizens, I believe he would not discover even two men in Tarsus who think alike, but on the contrary, just as with certain incurable and distressing diseases which are accustomed to pervade the whole body, exempting no member of it from their inroads, so this state of discord, this almost complete estrangement of one from another, has invaded your entire body politic.”1 (Dio Chrysostom, Discourse 34.20)
• Factions are terrible and draining: “[T]hose cities are best inhabited which know how to think harmoniously. Everywhere faction is a terrible, disruptive thing, and like consumption. For having fastened itself to the body politic it drains off, sucks out, and depletes all its strength, and does not cease until it has entirely worn it away, using the sick themselves as a means for their own destruction.”2 (Aristides, Oration 23.31)
• Dale Martin: “Within “deliberative” rhetoric—that is, rhetoric urging a political body toward some course of action—a popular topic was concord, or unity. Indeed, homonoia (“concord”) speeches, as they were known in Greek (the Latin was concordia), became practically a genre unto themselves, with predictable patterns, set clichés and examples, and an identifiable ideology. …The ideological purpose of homonoia speeches was to mitigate conflict by reaffirming and solidifying the hierarchy of society. To this end, certain topoi (set examples) recur with tiresome regularity. A favorite device is to show how the political hierarchy of the city mirrors the harmonious hierarchy of the cosmos. The cosmos works well because each cosmic entity knows its place in the cosmic body.”3

Body Parts Together

• 1 Corinthians 12:14-27 Each of the body parts is important. Those with less native honor should be clothed with greater honor.
• The Asclepius Temple hung body parts from its walls and ceiling.
• Murphy-O’Connor: “Paul would have seen the dismembered limbs displayed in the Asclepion as symbols of everything that Christians should not be: dead, divided, unloving, and unloved. From this it would have been an easy step to the contrasting image of the whole body in which the distinctive identity of each of the members is rooted in a shared life.”4

Speaking in Tongues as a Status Indicator

• They were using the gifts of the spirit to outdo one another
• Dale Martin: “It seems clear that for both Paul and the Strong at Corinth, speaking in tongues is a high-status activity, and its status significance, as we will see, is precisely what, in Paul’s opinion, makes it problematic in the Corinthian church. …[M]any modern scholars have assumed, like most modern intellectuals, that speaking in tongues is an activity of uneducated, marginal people.”5
• Dale Martin: “In 13:4 …Paul again uses the term “puffed up,” suggesting that it is the “wise” or “strong” in Corinth who value—too much, in Paul’s opinion—both knowledge and the esoteric language of the angels. He himself normally places a high-status valuation on speaking in tongues. He claims the gift for himself, even going so far as to claim a greater share of it than any of the Corinthians (14:18). In 14:2 Paul says that the person who speaks in tongues speaks not to human beings but to God. “For no one hears, but in the spirit [pneuma] he speaks mysteries.” Glossolalia is divine discourse; it deals in “mysteries,” which for Paul is a highly valued epistemological category.6
• Three times Paul listed various spirit activities (1 Cor 12:8-10, 28, 29). In each case he puts tongues last or second to last.
• Dale Martin: “[W]e must recognize that those who, on the surface, occupy positions of lower status are actually more essential than those of higher status and therefore should be accorded more honor. …The lower is made higher, and the higher lower. …Paul first accepts the high status of glossolalia as a given and then questions the expected attribution of honor to those of high status. Greater honor, he says, should be given to those normally considered to be low status. …To us, this sounds like simple, just equality. But to a person of ancient times imbued with upper-class ideology, to say that a slave and a master should work in tandem or that a patron should not expect his client to give way to him would have sounded revolutionary.”7

Love as the Key to Manifesting the Spirit in the Assembly

• 1 Corinthians 13:1-3 The Greeks and Romans had lots of divine speech, but nowhere do we read about love as a consideration. Paul introduced something that must have felt brand new. Your high-status divine speech is nothing if you don’t do it in love.
• 1 Corinthians 13:4-7 Taking the opposites, we get impatient, unkind, envious, boastful, arrogant, rude, insistent, irritable, resentful, rejoicing in wrongdoing, unwilling to bear anything, believe anything, have hope, or endure. This sounds like a description of the Corinthian Christians’ behavior. Paul challenged them to behave differently, especially when they gather.
• 1 Corinthians 13:8-13 Paul urged humility. Since we only know in part, we should be open to correction.

Practical Instruction for Spirit Manifestations in the Assembly

• 1 Corinthians 14:1-5 The key term for this chapter is “building up.” Does speaking in tongues build others up? What about prophecy?
• 1 Corinthians 14:6-12 Uninterpreted tongues do not build others up.
• 1 Corinthians 14:13-20 The same person who speaks in tongues can interpret. In this way others will be built up. Prophecy is preferred.
• 1 Corinthians 14:21-25 Tongues were a sign of judgment.
  • Anthony Thiselton: “[T]ongue-speaking in public worship is inappropriate in the first place because it places many of God’s own people in the situation of feeling like foreigners in a foreign land and “not at home” in their own home; (ii) second, tongue-speaking…will not bring the message of the gospel of Christ home to unbelievers. …Unbelievers do not produce prophetic speech which communicates gospel truth. Hence on one side prophetic speech characterizes the believing church at worship; tongues, on the other side, constitute negative signs (at least in public and in their effect) generating barriers and alienation inappropriate for believers. …Paul portrays speaking in tongues as a sign which inexpert unbelievers (rightly or wrongly) associate with, and interpret as, pagan μανιά, and thereby are pushed yet further away into judgment. On the other hand, prophetic speech brings genuine conviction (ἔλγχος) of truth, and hence faith.”8
  • Thomas Schreiner: “Judgment, of course, is not the only function of tongues since interpreted tongues edify the church (14:5).”9
  • Tongues also build up the speaker (14:4) and give God praise and thanks (14:15-17).
• 1 Corinthians 14:26-33 Here Paul limited the number of tongues speakers and prophets to two or three each. In v27, someone other than the speaker interprets the tongue. Putting this together with v13, we see that either the same person can interpret or another can. Prophesying Christians can control when to stop, and they can resist the urge to start.
• 1 Corinthians 14:34-36 We covered these verses in session 12 “Women in 1 Corinthians”.
• 1 Corinthians 14:37-40 Paul left them with three final instructions: (1) strive to prophesy, (2) do not forbid speaking in tongues, (3) everything is to be done decently and in order.

Application

• Anthony Thiselton: “Paul now makes utterly explicit what had lain implicitly in his earlier rhetoric. Not only does the rhetoric of the body reassure those with supposedly “inferior” or “dispensable” gifts that they do indeed belong fully to the body as essential limbs and organs, but this rhetoric now explicitly rebukes those who think that they and their “superior” gifts are self-sufficient for the whole body, or that others are scarcely “authentic” parts of the body, as they themselves are. It is hardly mere speculation to imagine that those who perceived themselves as possessing the “high-status” gifts of knowledge and wisdom, or of the power to heal or to speak in tongues, could be tempted to think of themselves as the inner circle on whom the identity and function of the church really depended. In modern times, the tendency to select either one or more of the “gifts” in 12:8–10, or to interpret the baptism by or in the Spirit in 12:13 as the sign of “advanced” status, comes perilously near to the Corinthian heresy which Paul explicitly attacks.”10
• Don’t think you’re better than others because you go to a continuationist church that makes time for divine speech on Sundays. That doesn’t make us advanced or superior to other Christians. Even so, the opposite problem is quite prevalent in Christianity today.
• N. T. Wright: “Paul’s overriding concern…is for order, peace and mutual upbuilding when the congregation comes together for worship, rather than for chaos, interruption and dissension. Of course, there are many churches today where there is so much order and peace that Paul might have wondered if everyone had gone to sleep.”11

Bibliography

Aristides, Publius Aelius. Orations 27-53. Translated by Charles A. Behr. Vol. 2. Leiden: Brill, 1981.

Chrysostom, Dio. Discourses 31-36. Translated by Lam J. W. Cohoon. Vol. 3. Loeb Classical Library, edited by T. E. Page. London, England: William Heinemann, 1940.

Martin, Dale B. The Corinthian Body. New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1995.

Murphy-O’Connor, Jerome. St. Paul’s Corinth: Texts and Archeology. 3rd ed. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 2002.

Schreiner, Thomas R. 1 Corinthians. Vol. 7. Tyndale New Testament Commentaries, edited by Eckhard J. Schnabel. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2018.

Thiselton, Anthony C. The First Epistle to the Corinthians: A Commentary on the Greek Text. Vol. 13. New International Greek Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000.

Wright, N. T. Paul for Everyone: 1 Corinthians. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2011.

1. Dio Chrysostom, Discourses 31-36, trans. Lam J. W. Cohoon, vol. 3, Loeb Classical Library, ed. T. E. Page (London, England: William Heinemann, 1940), 355-7.
2. Publius Aelius Aristides, Orations 27-53, trans. Charles A. Behr, vol. 2 (Leiden: Brill, 1981), 32.
3. Dale B. Martin, The Corinthian Body (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1995), 40.
4. Jerome Murphy-O’Connor, St. Paul’s Corinth: Texts and Archeology, 3rd ed. (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 2002), 190-1.
5. Martin, 87-8.
6. Martin, 87.
7. Martin, 95-6, 101-2.
8. Anthony C. Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians: A Commentary on the Greek Text, vol. 13, New International Greek Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000), 1121-23, 26.
9. Thomas R. Schreiner, 1 Corinthians, vol. 7, Tyndale New Testament Commentaries, ed. Eckhard J. Schnabel (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2018), 291.
10. Thiselton, 1005.
11. N. T. Wright, Paul for Everyone: 1 Corinthians (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2011), 200.

1 Corinthians 12:7, 10; 13:1, 8-12; 14:2, 4, 6, 11, 13-19, 27-28 Acts 2:1-11; 10:44-46; 11:15-17; 19:6-7

Greco-Roman Background for Speaking in Tongues

• We’ve looked at Corybantic male dancers, Bacchic female revelers, Sibyls, and oracles. The closest description to speaking in tongues we encountered was Lucan’s.
• Oracle in a frenzy: “When she found it, first the wild frenzy overflowed through her foaming lips; she groaned and uttered loud inarticulate cries with panting breath; next, a dismal wailing filled the vast cave; and at last, when she was mastered, came the sound of articulate speech: “Roman, thou shalt have no part in the mighty ordeal and shalt escape the awful threats of war; and thou alone shalt stay at peace in a broad hollow of the Euboean coast.” Then Apollo closed up her throat and cut short her tale.”1 (Lucan, Civil War 5.190-197)
• This doesn’t sound like she was speaking a foreign language. Rather she was groaning, crying, and panting.
• Christopher Forbes: “[N]o convincing parallels whatsoever have been found within the traditions of Graeco-Roman religion, as they were known in the environment of the New Testament, whether it be at the level of terminology, phenomena or concept. …Revelatory speech in those periods was believed to take an archaic poetic form, not, as I have shown, a form analogous to foreign languages. The “interpretation” that some oracles were believed to need was at the level of metaphor and imagery, not the linguistic level.”2
• Magic papyrus: “And take the mild with the honey and drink it before the rising of the sun, and there will be something divine in your heart. And take the falcon and set it up as a statue in a shrine made of juniper wood. And after you have crowned the shrine itself, make an offering of non-animal foods and have on hand some old wine. And before you recline, speak directly to the bird itself after you have made sacrifice to it, as you usually do, and say the prescribed spell: “A EE EEE IIII OOOOO YYYYYY OOOOOOO, come to me, Good Husbandman, Good Daimon, HARPON KNOUPHI BRINTANTEN SIPHRI BRISKYLMA AROUAZAR KRIPHI NIPOUMICHMOUMAOPH. Come to me, O holy Orion.…”3 (Papyri Graecae Magicae I.27-29)
• Craig Keener: “[T]he magical papyri may offer the most concrete parallels for unintelligible speech. Yet the strings of nonsense syllables found in magical papyri are mostly from the third century or later; more decisively, they are incantations and invocations, not understood as genuine language, not revelatory, and not inviting “interpretations.” Appeal to gnostic and Montanist “tongues” would be anachronistic, but there are no clear parallels there anyway. Greco-Roman religion thus offers no sufficient explanation for “tongues”—as a phenomenon understood as inspired “languages”—such as we find it in our earliest Christian sources.”4 What Is Speaking in Tongues? (1 Corinthians 12:7, 10)
• Speaking in tongues is a gift (1 Cor 12:4, 31).
• Tongues are languages (cf. Liddell-Scott-Jones Lexicon).
• These languages can be interpreted or translated.
• Someone can have more than one language for speaking in tongues.
• Thomas Schreiner: “Most scholars think that the gift in 1 Corinthians 12-14 differs from what we find in Acts, and many think that ‘ecstatic utterances’ are in view. Certainty is impossible, but I suggest that the gift is foreign languages, just as we see in Acts. …Tongues must be in some discernible code or language, even if the language is not known to humans. Since ecstatic speech cannot be interpreted or translated inasmuch as it consists of meaningless babbling and there is no discernible code, the word glossa points to some kind of language. Different kinds of tongues, then, points to the variety of languages.”5

Tongues in the Acts of the Apostles

• Acts 2:1-11 Tongues were human languages. Foreigners understood them even though they were untranslated. The content of the speech was about God’s deeds of power. It was not a miracle of hearing but of speaking.
• Acts 10:44-46; 11:15-17 Peter was surprised to see Gentiles speaking in tongues. He recognized what they were doing as the same phenomenon he had experienced on Pentecost and concluded that meant God had accepted them as members of the Church.
• Acts 19:6-7 Luke employed the same Greek terminology here as on Pentecost or Cornelius’s house, which undermines the NRSV’s translation “speak in other languages” for Acts 2 while “speaking in tongues” for Acts 10 and 19. In other words, speaking in tongues is speaking in other languages.
• If Luke described Paul’s missionary activity in Ephesus (Acts 19) as involving glossa (γλῶσσα), then we would expect different terminology in 1 Corinthians 12-14 if it was a different phenomenon.
• Craig Keener: “[It] is virtually inconceivable that the two writers [Luke and Paul] would independently coin the same obscure phrase for two entirely different phenomena.”6
• Thus, we’re on solid grounds to link the activity of tongues in Acts with that of 1 Corinthians while noting the change in context. Whereas in Acts tongues speaking happened at conversion, in 1 Corinthians it occurred as part of the weekly worship gathering.

Tongues of Angels

• 1 Corinthians 13:1 Paul mentions tongues of humans and of angels.
• The gods spoke a different language: “Tell me, do you think Apollo speaks Attic or Doric? Or that men and gods have the same language? Yet the difference is so great that the Scamander river in Troy is called Xanthus by the gods …And after telling us that the river is called not Scamander but Xanthus by the gods, Homer himself proceeds to call it by this latter name in his verses, as though it were his privilege not only to mix the various dialectic forms of the Greeks freely, using now an Aeolic, now a Dorian, and now an Ionic form, but to employ even the Zeus dialect in the bargain.”7 (Dio Chrysostom, Discourses 10.23, 11.23)
• In Jewish apocalyptic literature, we find two intriguing examples of speaking the language of angels.
• Example 1: “Thousands of thousands and myriads of myriads of angels gave praise before me. I, myself, put on an angelic garment. I saw all of those angels praying. I, myself, prayed together with them, I knew their language, which they spoke with me.”8 (Apocalypse of Zephaniah 8.2-4)
• Example 2: “48.1 Thus, when the one called Hemera arose, she wrapped around her own string just as her father said. 2 And she took on another heart— no longer minded toward earthly things— 3 but she spoke ecstatically in the angelic dialect, sending up a hymn to God in accord with the hymnic style of the angels. And as she spoke ecstatically, she allowed “The Spirit” to be inscribed on her garment. 49.1 Then Kasia bound hers on and had her heart changed so that she no longer regarded worldly things. 2 And her mouth took on the dialect of the archons and she praised God for the creation of the heights. 3 So, if anyone wishes to know “The Creation of the Heavens,” he will be able to find it in “The Hymns of Kasia.” 50.1 Then the other one also, named Amaltheia’s Horn, bound on her cord. And her mouth spoke ecstatically in the dialect of those on high, 2 since her heart also was changed, keeping aloof from worldly things. For she spoke in the dialect of the cherubim, glorifying the Master of virtues by exhibiting their splendor. 3 And finally whoever wishes to grasp a trace of “The Paternal Splendor” will find it written down in “The Prayers of Amaltheia’s Horn.”9 (Testament of Job 48.1-50.3)
• Christopher Forbes: “What the Testament [of Job] does provide, however, is clear evidence that the concept of angelic languages as a mode of praise to God was an acceptable one within certain circles. As such it is our nearest parallel to glossolalia. …We have, then, within Judaism, only two substantial parallels for the concept that humans might, under inspiration, learn and use the languages of the angels for prayer. Neither of them is of demonstrably pre-Christian date.”10
• In light of the parallels in the Apocalypse of Zephaniah and the Testament of Job as well as the commonsense argument of Dio Chrysostom that the gods presumably have their own language, it’s certainly plausible that at least some speaking in tongues is in the languages of the angels.

Tongues in the Assembly (1 Cor 14)

• 1 Corinthians 14:2, 4 Tongues are to God—prayer. No one understands them though they build up the speaker.
• 1 Corinthians 14:6, 11 Tongues sound like a foreign language, though they are not a learned foreign language.
• 1 Corinthians 14:13-19 While speaking in tongues, the speakers do not understand what they are saying. Speaking in tongues is primarily done in private (Jude 1:19-20; Eph 6:18-19).
• 1 Corinthians 14:27-28 Uninterpreted spoken tongues have no place in the weekly worship gathering though they are fine to be done silently.
• Gordon Fee: “The following seem certain: (a) It is Spirit-inspired utterance; that is made explicit both in the present listing (vv. 7 and 11) and later (14:2). (b) The coming regulations for its use (14:27–28) make it clear that the speaker is not in “ecstasy” or “out of control.” Quite the opposite; the speakers must speak in turn, and they must remain silent if there is no one to interpret. (c) It is speech essentially unintelligible both to the speaker (14:14) and to other hearers (14:16). (d) It is speech directed basically toward God (14:2, 14–15, 28); one may assume, therefore, that what is “interpreted” is not speech directed toward others, but the “mysteries” spoken to God. What is less certain is whether Paul also understood the phenomenon to be an actual language. In favor of such a view are (a) the term itself, (b) the need for “interpretation,” and (c) the evidence from the early narrative in Acts (2:5–11). In the final analysis, however, this question seems irrelevant. Paul’s whole argument is predicated on its unintelligibility to both speaker and hearer; he certainly does not envisage someone’s being present who would be able to understand it because it was also an earthly language. Moreover, his later use of earthly languages as an analogy (14:10–12) implies that it is not a known earthly language, since a thing is not usually identical with that to which it is analogous. Most likely, therefore, the key to Paul’s—and their—understanding lies in the term “the language of angels” to come (13:1, q.v.).”11
• N. T. Wright: “Paul assumes that none of these gifts are given to everybody. ‘Do all speak in tongues?’, like the other questions, expects the answer ‘No.’ And, though Paul is always eager for God to do new things in the lives of people and communities, he sees no need to suggest that the ‘not all’ categories of verses 29 and 30 should be challenged, that everyone should, after all, be prophets, or teachers, or tongue-speakers, or whatever.”12 Tongues Ceased After the Apostolic Age
• 1 Corinthians 13:8-12 Paul says that tongues will end when the complete or perfect comes. Some argue that this has already happened.
• John MacArthur: “In 1 Corinthians 13:8, Paul explained that “whether there are tongues, they will cease.” The Greek verb used in that verse (pauo) means “to cease permanently,” indicating that the gift of tongues would come to an end once and for all. … [W]hatever modern charismatics are doing, it is not the gift of languages. …The New Testament gift ceased after the apostolic age ended and has never returned. In 1 Corinthians 13:10, Paul noted that partial knowledge and partial prophecy would be done away with “when that which is perfect has come.” …[T]he believer’s entrance into the Lord’s presence best fits Paul’s use of “perfect” in 1 Corinthians 13:10. …[Paul] was making a point that specifically pertained to his first-century audience: when you Corinthian believers enter the glorified perfection of eternity in heaven, the spiritual gifts you now prize so highly will no longer be necessary.”13

Tongues Continued After the Apostolic Age

• Irenaeus: “[T]he Apostle declares: We speak wisdom among the perfect. He calls those perfect who have received God’s Spirit and who speak with all the tongues through the Spirit, as he himself spoke. We, too, hear many brothers in the Church who possess the prophetic charisms, and speak with all the tongues through the Spirit, and bring out into the open secrets of men for the benefit of others, and declare the mysteries of God.”14 (Irenaeus, Against Heresies 5.6.1)
• Tertullian (208-212 ad): “Let Marcion then exhibit, as gifts of his god, some prophets, such as have not spoken by human sense, but with the Spirit of God, such as have both predicted things to come, and have made manifest the secrets of the heart; let him produce a psalm, a vision, a prayer—only let it be by the Spirit, in an ecstasy, that is, in a rapture, whenever an interpretation of tongues has occurred to him; let him show to me also, that any woman of boastful tongue in his community has ever prophesied from amongst those specially holy sisters of his. Now all these signs (of spiritual gifts) are forthcoming from my side without any difficulty….” (Tertullian, Against Marcion 5.8)15
• Novatian (250-255 ad): “This is He who places prophets in the Church, instructs teachers, directs tongues, gives powers and healings, does wonderful works, often discrimination of spirits, affords powers of government, suggests counsels, and orders and arranges whatever other gifts there are of charismata; and thus make the Lord’s Church everywhere, and in all, perfected and completed.”16 (Novation, On the Trinity 29)
• Hilary of Poitiers (356-360 ad) “For God hath set the same in the Church, first apostles, in whom is the word of wisdom; secondly prophets, in whom is the gift of knowledge thirdly teachers, in whom is the doctrine of faith; next mighty works, among which are the healing of diseases, the power to help, governments by the prophets, and gifts of either speaking or interpreting divers kinds of tongues. Clearly these are the Church’s agents of ministry and work of whom the body of Christ consists; and God has ordained them.”17 (Hilary, On the Trinity 8.33)
• Apostolic Constitutions (375-380 ad) “It is not therefore necessary that every one of the faithful should cast out demons, or raise the dead, or speak with tongues; but such a one only who is vouchsafed this gift, for some cause which may be advantage to the salvation of the unbelievers… God is pleased, as a wise steward of a family, to appoint miracles to be wrought, not by the power of men, but by His own will. Now we say these things, that those who have received such gifts may not exalt themselves against those who have not received them; such gifts, we mean, as are for the working of miracles. For otherwise there is no man who has believed in God through Christ, that has not received some spiritual gift….”18 (Apostolic Constitutions 8.1-2)
• Ambrose (writing 381-382 ad): “See, God set apostles, and set prophets and teachers, gave the gift of healings, which you find above to be given by the Holy Spirit; gave divers kinds of tongues. But yet all are not apostles, all are not prophets, all are not teachers. Not all, says he, have the gift of healings, nor do all, says he, speak with tongues. For the whole of the divine gifts cannot exist in each several man; each, according to his capacity, receives that which he either desires or deserves.”19 (Ambrose, The Holy Spirit 2.150)

Tongues Ceased After the Fourth Century

• John Chrysostom (late 4th cent.) “This whole place is very obscure: but the obscurity is produced by our ignorance of the facts referred to and by their cessation, being such as then used to occur but now no longer take place. And why do they not happen now? Why look now, the cause too of the obscurity hath produced us again another question: namely, why did they then happen, and now do so no more?”20 (John Chrysostom, Homilies on 1 Corinthians 29)
• Christopher Forbes: “From the end of the fourth century onwards I have been able to find no clear suggestion of the continued practice of glossolalia within the church. Chrysostom’s view, which is also Augustine’s, becomes standard, and little more can be said. What we have seen, however, is that glossolalia appears to have been known in three widely separated areas over a period of more than three hundred and fifty years of the church’s life. In the light of this evidence, it becomes impossible to argue that glossolalia was a limited, anomalous phenomenon within the Apostolic generation. It was, on the contrary, a widespread and lasting (though far from universal) spiritual experience in the early formative centuries of Christianity.”21
• Although the tracks run cold for a few centuries, we find scattered reports about speaking in tongues starting in the time of the Moravians (15th c.), Anabaptists (16th c.), the French Prophets (17th c.), early Quakers (17th c.), Mormons (19th c.). Then at the dawn of the 20th c., the Pentecostal movement began with William Seymour’s Azusa Street Revival. The movement steadily grew such that today more than one in every four Christians is charismatic (an estimated 644 million Christians).22

Bibliography

Fathers of the Third and Fourth Centuries: Lactantius, Venantius, Asterius, Victorinus, Dionysius, Apostolic Teaching and Constitutions, Homily, and Liturgies. Translated by William Whiston. Ante-Nicene Fathers, edited by Alexander Robertson and James Donaldson, vol. 7. Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark, 1885.

“Global Pentecostalism.” Gordon Conwell. Accessed March 4, 2025. https://www.gordonconwell.edu/center-for-global-christianity/research/global-pentecostalism.

“Have Pentecostals Outgrown Their Name?”, Christianity Today, May 29, 2020. Accessed March 4, 2025. https://www.christianitytoday.com/2020/05/holy-spirit-empowered-christian-global-pentecostal-study/.

Ambrose. Selected Works and Letters. Translated by Henri de Romestin. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (2nd Series), edited by Philip Schaff, vol. 10. Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark, 1890.

Betz, Hans Dieter. The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1986.

Charlesworth, James H. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: Volumes 1 and 2. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985.

Chrysostom, Dio. Discourses 1-11. Translated by J. W. Cohoon. Vol. 1. Loeb Classical Library, edited by E. H. Warmington. London, England: William Henemann, 1932.

Chrysostom, John. Homilies on First and Second Corinthians. Translated by T. W. Chambers. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, edited by Philip Schaff, vol. 12. Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark, 1886.

Fee, Gordon D. The First Epistle to the Corinthians, Revised Edition. New International Commentary on the New Testament, edited by Joel B. Green. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2014.

Forbes, Christopher. Prophecy and Inspired Speech in Early Christianity and Its Hellenistic Environment. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1997.

Irenaeus. St. Irenaeus of Lyons: Against Heresies (Books 4 and 5). Translated by Scott D. Moringiello. Mahwah, NJ: The Newman Press, 2024.

Keener, Craig S. Acts: An Exegetical Commentary. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2014.

Lucan. The Civil War 1-10 (Pharsalia). Translated by J. D. Duff. Loeb Classical Library, edited by T. E. Page. London, England: William Heinemann, 1962.

MacArthur, John. Strange Fire: The Dangers of Offending the Holy Spirit with Counterfeit Worship. Nashville, TN: Nelson Books, 2013.

Novatian. Fathers of the Third Century: Hippolytus, Cyprian, Caius, Novatian, Appendix. Translated by Robert Ernest Wallis. Ante-Nicene Fathers, edited by Alexander Robertson and James Donaldson, vol. 5. Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark, 1885.

Potiers, Hilary of. Hilary of Potiers and John of Damascus. Translated by E. W. Watson. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (2nd Series), edited by Philip Schaff, vol. 9. Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark, 1890.

Schreiner, Thomas R. 1 Corinthians. Vol. 7. Tyndale New Testament Commentaries, edited by Eckhard J. Schnabel. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2018.

Tertullian. Latin Christianity: Its Founder, Tertullian. Translated by S. Thelwall. Ante-Nicene Fathers, edited by Alexander Robertson and James Donaldson, vol. 3. Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark, 1885.

Wright, N. T. Paul for Everyone: 1 Corinthians. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2011.

1. Lucan, The Civil War 1-10 (Pharsalia), trans. J. D. Duff, Loeb Classical Library, ed. T. E. Page (London, England: William Heinemann, 1962), 253.
2. Christopher Forbes, Prophecy and Inspired Speech in Early Christianity and Its Hellenistic Environment (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1997), 316-17.
3. Hans Dieter Betz, The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 3-4.
4. Craig S. Keener, Acts: An Exegetical Commentary, vol. 1 (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2014), 810-11.
5. Thomas R. Schreiner, 1 Corinthians, vol. 7, Tyndale New Testament Commentaries, ed. Eckhard J. Schnabel (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2018), 261-2.
6. Keener, 813.
7. Dio Chrysostom, Discourses 1-11, trans. J. W. Cohoon, vol. 1, Loeb Classical Library, ed. E. H. Warmington (London, England: William Henemann, 1932), 435, 63.
8.  James H. Charlesworth, The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: Volumes 1 and 2 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985).
9. Charlesworth.
10. Forbes, 185-87.
11.  Gordon D. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, Revised Edition, New International Commentary on the New Testament, ed. Joel B. Green (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2014), 662-3.
12. N. T. Wright, Paul for Everyone: 1 Corinthians (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2011), 169.
13. John MacArthur, Strange Fire: The Dangers of Offending the Holy Spirit with Counterfeit Worship (Nashville, TN: Nelson Books, 2013), 148-9.
14. Irenaeus, St. Irenaeus of Lyons: Against Heresies (Books 4 and 5), trans. Scott D. Moringiello (Mahwah, NJ: The Newman Press, 2024), 138-9.
15. Tertullian, Latin Christianity: Its Founder, Tertullian, trans. S. Thelwall, Ante-Nicene Fathers, ed. Alexander Robertson and James Donaldson, vol. 3 (Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark, 1885).
16. Novatian, Fathers of the Third Century: Hippolytus, Cyprian, Caius, Novatian, Appendix, trans. Robert Ernest Wallis, Ante-Nicene Fathers, ed. Alexander Robertson and James Donaldson, vol. 5 (Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark, 1885).
17. Hilary of Potiers, Hilary of Potiers and John of Damascus, trans. E. W. Watson, Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (2nd Series), ed. Philip Schaff, vol. 9 (Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark, 1890).
18. Fathers of the Third and Fourth Centuries: Lactantius, Venantius, Asterius, Victorinus, Dionysius, Apostolic Teaching and Constitutions, Homily, and Liturgies, trans. William Whiston, Ante-Nicene Fathers, ed. Alexander Robertson and James Donaldson, vol. 7 (Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark, 1885).
19. Ambrose, Selected Works and Letters, trans. Henri de Romestin, Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (2nd Series), ed. Philip Schaff, vol. 10 (Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark, 1890).
20. John Chrysostom, Homilies on First and Second Corinthians, trans. T. W. Chambers, Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, ed. Philip Schaff, vol. 12 (Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark, 1886).
21. Forbes, 84.
22. “Global Pentecostalism,” Gordon Conwell, accessed March 4, 2025, https://www.gordonconwell.edu/center-for-global-christianity/research/global-pentecostalism. See also “Have Pentecostals Outgrown Their Name?,” Christianity Today, May 29, 2020, accessed March 4, 2025, https://www.christianitytoday.com/2020/05/holy-spirit-empowered-christian-global-pentecostal-study/.